# 27.7. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a series of fixers to transform it into valid Python 3.x code. The standard library contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost all code. 2to3 supporting library `lib2to3` is, however, a flexible and generic library, so it is possible to write your own fixers for 2to3. `lib2to3` could also be adapted to custom applications in which Python code needs to be edited automatically.

## 27.7.1. Using 2to3

2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script. It is also located in the `Tools/scripts` directory of the Python root.

2to3’s basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform. The directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.

Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, `example.py`:

    def greet(name):
        print "Hello, {0}!".format(name)
    print "What's your name?"
    name = raw_input()
    greet(name)

It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:

    $ 2to3 example.py

A diff against the original source file is printed. 2to3 can also write the needed modifications right back to the source file. (A backup of the original file is made unless `-n` is also given.) Writing the changes back is enabled with the `-w` flag:

    $ 2to3 -w example.py

After transformation, `example.py` looks like this:

    def greet(name):
        print("Hello, {0}!".format(name))
    print("What's your name?")
    name = input()
    greet(name)

Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation process.

By default, 2to3 runs a set of predefined fixers. The `-l` flag lists all available fixers. An explicit set of fixers to run can be given with `-f`. Likewise the `-x` explicitly disables a fixer. The following example runs only the `imports` and `has_key` fixers:

    $ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py

This command runs every fixer except the `apply` fixer:

    $ 2to3 -x apply example.py

Some fixers are explicit, meaning they aren’t run by default and must be listed on the command line to be run. Here, in addition to the default fixers, the `idioms` fixer is run:

    $ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py

Notice how passing `all` enables all default fixers.

Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be changed, but 2to3 cannot fix automatically. In this case, 2to3 will print a warning beneath the diff for a file. You should address the warning in order to have compliant 3.x code.

2to3 can also refactor doctests. To enable this mode, use the `-d` flag. Note that only doctests will be refactored. This also doesn’t require the module to be valid Python. For example, doctest like examples in a reST document could also be refactored with this option.

The `-v` option enables output of more information on the translation process.

Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or statements, 2to3 cannot always read files containing the print function. When 2to3 detects the presence of the `from __future__ import print_function` compiler directive, it modifies its internal grammar to interpret `print()` as a function. This change can also be enabled manually with the `-p` flag. Use `-p` to run fixers on code that already has had its print statements converted.

The `-o` or `--output-dir` option allows specification of an alternate directory for processed output files to be written to. The `-n` flag is required when using this as backup files do not make sense when not overwriting the input files.

New in version 3.2.3: The `-o` option was added.

The `-W` or `--write-unchanged-files` flag tells 2to3 to always write output files even if no changes were required to the file. This is most useful with `-o` so that an entire Python source tree is copied with translation from one directory to another. This option implies the `-w` flag as it would not make sense otherwise.

New in version 3.2.3: The `-W` flag was added.

The `--add-suffix` option specifies a string to append to all output filenames. The `-n` flag is required when specifying this as backups are not necessary when writing to different filenames. Example:

    $ 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix=3 example.py

Will cause a converted file named `example.py3` to be written.

New in version 3.2.3: The `--add-suffix` option was added.

To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:

    $ 2to3 --output-dir=python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode

## 27.7.2. Fixers

Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer. The command `2to3 -l` lists them. As documented above, each can be turned on and off individually. They are described here in more detail.

`apply`

  Removes usage of `apply()`. For example `apply(function, *args, **kwargs)` is converted to `function(*args, **kwargs)`.

`asserts`

  Replaces deprecated `unittest` method names with the correct ones.

  From | To
  --- | ---
  `failUnlessEqual(a, b)` | `assertEqual(a, b)`
  `assertEquals(a, b)` | `assertEqual(a, b)`
  `failIfEqual(a, b)` | `assertNotEqual(a, b)`
  `assertNotEquals(a, b)` | `assertNotEqual(a, b)`
  `failUnless(a)` | `assertTrue(a)`
  `assert_(a)` | `assertTrue(a)`
  `failIf(a)` | `assertFalse(a)`
  `failUnlessRaises(exc, cal)` | `assertRaises(exc, cal)`
  `failUnlessAlmostEqual(a, b)` | `assertAlmostEqual(a, b)`
  `assertAlmostEquals(a, b)` | `assertAlmostEqual(a, b)`
  `failIfAlmostEqual(a, b)` | `assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)`
  `assertNotAlmostEquals(a, b)` | `assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)`

`basestring`

  Converts `basestring` to `str`.

`buffer`

  Converts `buffer` to `memoryview`. This fixer is optional because the `memoryview` API is similar but not exactly the same as that of `buffer`.

`dict`

  Fixes dictionary iteration methods. `dict.iteritems()` is converted to `dict.items()`, `dict.iterkeys()` to `dict.keys()`, and `dict.itervalues()` to `dict.values()`. Similarly, `dict.viewitems()`, `dict.viewkeys()` and `dict.viewvalues()` are converted respectively to `dict.items()`, `dict.keys()` and `dict.values()`. It also wraps existing usages of `dict.items()`, `dict.keys()`, and `dict.values()` in a call to `list`.

`except`

  Converts `except X, T` to `except X as T`.

`exec`

  Converts the `exec` statement to the `exec()` function.

`execfile`

  Removes usage of `execfile()`. The argument to `execfile()` is wrapped in calls to `open()`, `compile()`, and `exec()`.

`exitfunc`

  Changes assignment of `sys.exitfunc` to use of the `atexit` module.

`filter`

  Wraps `filter()` usage in a `list` call.

`funcattrs`

  Fixes function attributes that have been renamed. For example, `my_function.func_closure` is converted to `my_function.__closure__`.

`future`

  Removes `from __future__ import new_feature` statements.

`getcwdu`

  Renames `os.getcwdu()` to `os.getcwd()`.

`has_key`

  Changes `dict.has_key(key)` to `key in dict`.

`idioms`

  This optional fixer performs several transformations that make Python code more idiomatic. Type comparisons like `type(x) is SomeClass` and `type(x) == SomeClass` are converted to `isinstance(x, SomeClass)`. `while 1` becomes `while True`. This fixer also tries to make use of `sorted()` in appropriate places. For example, this block

      L = list(some_iterable)
      L.sort()

  is changed to

      L = sorted(some_iterable)

`import`

  Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.

`imports`

  Handles module renames in the standard library.

`imports2`

  Handles other modules renames in the standard library. It is separate from the `imports` fixer only because of technical limitations.

`input`

  Converts `input(prompt)` to `eval(input(prompt))`.

`intern`

  Converts `intern()` to `sys.intern()`.

`isinstance`

  Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of `isinstance()`. For example, `isinstance(x, (int, int))` is converted to `isinstance(x, int)` and `isinstance(x, (int, float, int))` is converted to `isinstance(x, (int, float))`.

`itertools_imports`

  Removes imports of `itertools.ifilter()`, `itertools.izip()`, and `itertools.imap()`. Imports of `itertools.ifilterfalse()` are also changed to `itertools.filterfalse()`.

`itertools`

  Changes usage of `itertools.ifilter()`, `itertools.izip()`, and `itertools.imap()` to their built-in equivalents. `itertools.ifilterfalse()` is changed to `itertools.filterfalse()`.

`long`

  Renames `long` to `int`.

`map`

  Wraps `map()` in a `list` call. It also changes `map(None, x)` to `list(x)`. Using `from future_builtins import map` disables this fixer.

`metaclass`

  Converts the old metaclass syntax (`__metaclass__ = Meta` in the class body) to the new (`class X(metaclass=Meta)`).

`methodattrs`

  Fixes old method attribute names. For example, `meth.im_func` is converted to `meth.__func__`.

`ne`

  Converts the old not-equal syntax, `<>`, to `!=`.

`next`

  Converts the use of iterator’s `next()` methods to the `next()` function. It also renames `next()` methods to `__next__()`.

`nonzero`

  Renames `__nonzero__()` to `__bool__()`.

`numliterals`

  Converts octal literals into the new syntax.

`operator`

  Converts calls to various functions in the `operator` module to other, but equivalent, function calls. When needed, the appropriate `import` statements are added, e.g. `import collections.abc`. The following mapping are made:

  From | To
  --- | ---
  `operator.isCallable(obj)` | `callable(obj)`
  `operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)` | `operator.contains(obj)`
  `operator.isSequenceType(obj)` | `isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Sequence)`
  `operator.isMappingType(obj)` | `isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Mapping)`
  `operator.isNumberType(obj)` | `isinstance(obj, numbers.Number)`
  `operator.repeat(obj, n)` | `operator.mul(obj, n)`
  `operator.irepeat(obj, n)` | `operator.imul(obj, n)`

`paren`

  Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list comprehensions. For example, `[x for x in 1, 2]` becomes `[x for x in (1, 2)]`.

`print`

  Converts the `print` statement to the `print()` function.

`raise`

  Converts `raise E, V` to `raise E(V)`, and `raise E, V, T` to `raise E(V).with_traceback(T)`. If `E` is a tuple, the translation will be incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has been removed in 3.0.

`raw_input`

  Converts `raw_input()` to `input()`.

`reduce`

  Handles the move of `reduce()` to `functools.reduce()`.

`reload`

  Converts `reload()` to `imp.reload()`.

`renames`

  Changes `sys.maxint` to `sys.maxsize`.

`repr`

  Replaces backtick repr with the `repr()` function.

`set_literal`

  Replaces use of the `set` constructor with set literals. This fixer is optional.

`standarderror`

  Renames `StandardError` to `Exception`.

`sys_exc`

  Changes the deprecated `sys.exc_value`, `sys.exc_type`, `sys.exc_traceback` to use `sys.exc_info()`.

`throw`

  Fixes the API change in generator’s `throw()` method.

`tuple_params`

  Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking. This fixer inserts temporary variables.

`types`

  Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the `types` module.

`unicode`

  Renames `unicode` to `str`.

`urllib`

  Handles the rename of `urllib` and `urllib2` to the `urllib` package.

`ws_comma`

  Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items. This fixer is optional.

`xrange`

  Renames `xrange()` to `range()` and wraps existing `range()` calls with `list`.

`xreadlines`

  Changes `for x in file.xreadlines()` to `for x in file`.

`zip`

  Wraps `zip()` usage in a `list` call. This is disabled when `from future_builtins import zip` appears.

## 27.7.3. `lib2to3` - 2to3’s library

Source code: Lib/lib2to3/

Note

The `lib2to3` API should be considered unstable and may change drastically in the future.