
``codecs`` --- Codec registry and base classes
**********************************************

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders
and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec
registry which manages the codec and error handling lookup process.

It defines the following functions:

codecs.register(search_function)

   Register a codec search function. Search functions are expected to
   take one argument, the encoding name in all lower case letters, and
   return a ``CodecInfo`` object having the following attributes:

   * ``name`` The name of the encoding;

   * ``encode`` The stateless encoding function;

   * ``decode`` The stateless decoding function;

   * ``incrementalencoder`` An incremental encoder class or factory
     function;

   * ``incrementaldecoder`` An incremental decoder class or factory
     function;

   * ``streamwriter`` A stream writer class or factory function;

   * ``streamreader`` A stream reader class or factory function.

   The various functions or classes take the following arguments:

   *encode* and *decode*: These must be functions or methods which
   have the same interface as the ``encode()``/``decode()`` methods of
   Codec instances (see Codec Interface). The functions/methods are
   expected to work in a stateless mode.

   *incrementalencoder* and *incrementaldecoder*: These have to be
   factory functions providing the following interface:

      ``factory(errors='strict')``

   The factory functions must return objects providing the interfaces
   defined by the base classes ``IncrementalEncoder`` and
   ``IncrementalDecoder``, respectively. Incremental codecs can
   maintain state.

   *streamreader* and *streamwriter*: These have to be factory
   functions providing the following interface:

      ``factory(stream, errors='strict')``

   The factory functions must return objects providing the interfaces
   defined by the base classes ``StreamWriter`` and ``StreamReader``,
   respectively. Stream codecs can maintain state.

   Possible values for errors are

   * ``'strict'``: raise an exception in case of an encoding error

   * ``'replace'``: replace malformed data with a suitable replacement
     marker, such as ``'?'`` or ``'\ufffd'``

   * ``'ignore'``: ignore malformed data and continue without further
     notice

   * ``'xmlcharrefreplace'``: replace with the appropriate XML
     character reference (for encoding only)

   * ``'backslashreplace'``: replace with backslashed escape sequences
     (for encoding only)

   * ``'surrogateescape'``: replace with surrogate U+DCxx, see **PEP
     383**

   as well as any other error handling name defined via
   ``register_error()``.

   In case a search function cannot find a given encoding, it should
   return ``None``.

codecs.lookup(encoding)

   Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
   ``CodecInfo`` object as defined above.

   Encodings are first looked up in the registry's cache. If not
   found, the list of registered search functions is scanned. If no
   ``CodecInfo`` object is found, a ``LookupError`` is raised.
   Otherwise, the ``CodecInfo`` object is stored in the cache and
   returned to the caller.

To simplify access to the various codecs, the module provides these
additional functions which use ``lookup()`` for the codec lookup:

codecs.getencoder(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder
   function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found.

codecs.getdecoder(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder
   function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found.

codecs.getincrementalencoder(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
   encoder class or factory function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found or
   the codec doesn't support an incremental encoder.

codecs.getincrementaldecoder(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
   decoder class or factory function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found or
   the codec doesn't support an incremental decoder.

codecs.getreader(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its
   StreamReader class or factory function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found.

codecs.getwriter(encoding)

   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its
   StreamWriter class or factory function.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the encoding cannot be found.

codecs.register_error(name, error_handler)

   Register the error handling function *error_handler* under the name
   *name*. *error_handler* will be called during encoding and decoding
   in case of an error, when *name* is specified as the errors
   parameter.

   For encoding *error_handler* will be called with a
   ``UnicodeEncodeError`` instance, which contains information about
   the location of the error. The error handler must either raise this
   or a different exception or return a tuple with a replacement for
   the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding
   should continue. The replacement may be either ``str`` or
   ``bytes``.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will simply
   copy them into the output buffer. If the replacement is a string,
   the encoder will encode the replacement.  Encoding continues on
   original input at the specified position. Negative position values
   will be treated as being relative to the end of the input string.
   If the resulting position is out of bound an ``IndexError`` will be
   raised.

   Decoding and translating works similar, except
   ``UnicodeDecodeError`` or ``UnicodeTranslateError`` will be passed
   to the handler and that the replacement from the error handler will
   be put into the output directly.

codecs.lookup_error(name)

   Return the error handler previously registered under the name
   *name*.

   Raises a ``LookupError`` in case the handler cannot be found.

codecs.strict_errors(exception)

   Implements the ``strict`` error handling: each encoding or decoding
   error raises a ``UnicodeError``.

codecs.replace_errors(exception)

   Implements the ``replace`` error handling: malformed data is
   replaced with a suitable replacement character such as ``'?'`` in
   bytestrings and ``'\ufffd'`` in Unicode strings.

codecs.ignore_errors(exception)

   Implements the ``ignore`` error handling: malformed data is ignored
   and encoding or decoding is continued without further notice.

codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors(exception)

   Implements the ``xmlcharrefreplace`` error handling (for encoding
   only): the unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML
   character reference.

codecs.backslashreplace_errors(exception)

   Implements the ``backslashreplace`` error handling (for encoding
   only): the unencodable character is replaced by a backslashed
   escape sequence.

To simplify working with encoded files or stream, the module also
defines these utility functions:

codecs.open(filename, mode[, encoding[, errors[, buffering]]])

   Open an encoded file using the given *mode* and return a wrapped
   version providing transparent encoding/decoding.  The default file
   mode is ``'r'`` meaning to open the file in read mode.

   Note: The wrapped version's methods will accept and return strings
     only.  Bytes arguments will be rejected.

   Note: Files are always opened in binary mode, even if no binary mode
     was specified.  This is done to avoid data loss due to encodings
     using 8-bit values.  This means that no automatic conversion of
     ``b'\n'`` is done on reading and writing.

   *encoding* specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.

   *errors* may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to
   ``'strict'`` which causes a ``ValueError`` to be raised in case an
   encoding error occurs.

   *buffering* has the same meaning as for the built-in ``open()``
   function.  It defaults to line buffered.

codecs.EncodedFile(file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None, errors='strict')

   Return a wrapped version of file which provides transparent
   encoding translation.

   Bytes written to the wrapped file are interpreted according to the
   given *data_encoding* and then written to the original file as
   bytes using the *file_encoding*.

   If *file_encoding* is not given, it defaults to *data_encoding*.

   *errors* may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to
   ``'strict'``, which causes ``ValueError`` to be raised in case an
   encoding error occurs.

codecs.iterencode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)

   Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input
   provided by *iterator*. This function is a *generator*.  *errors*
   (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through to the
   incremental encoder.

codecs.iterdecode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)

   Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input
   provided by *iterator*. This function is a *generator*.  *errors*
   (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through to the
   incremental decoder.

The module also provides the following constants which are useful for
reading and writing to platform dependent files:

codecs.BOM
codecs.BOM_BE
codecs.BOM_LE
codecs.BOM_UTF8
codecs.BOM_UTF16
codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
codecs.BOM_UTF32
codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

   These constants define various encodings of the Unicode byte order
   mark (BOM) used in UTF-16 and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the
   byte order used in the stream or file and in UTF-8 as a Unicode
   signature. ``BOM_UTF16`` is either ``BOM_UTF16_BE`` or
   ``BOM_UTF16_LE`` depending on the platform's native byte order,
   ``BOM`` is an alias for ``BOM_UTF16``, ``BOM_LE`` for
   ``BOM_UTF16_LE`` and ``BOM_BE`` for ``BOM_UTF16_BE``. The others
   represent the BOM in UTF-8 and UTF-32 encodings.


Codec Base Classes
==================

The ``codecs`` module defines a set of base classes which define the
interface and can also be used to easily write your own codecs for use
in Python.

Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in
Python: stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream
writer. The stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless
encoder/decoder to implement the file protocols.

The ``Codec`` class defines the interface for stateless
encoders/decoders.

To simplify and standardize error handling, the ``encode()`` and
``decode()`` methods may implement different error handling schemes by
providing the *errors* string argument.  The following string values
are defined and implemented by all standard Python codecs:

+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| Value                     | Meaning                                         |
+===========================+=================================================+
| ``'strict'``              | Raise ``UnicodeError`` (or a subclass); this is |
|                           | the default.                                    |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| ``'ignore'``              | Ignore the character and continue with the      |
|                           | next.                                           |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| ``'replace'``             | Replace with a suitable replacement character;  |
|                           | Python will use the official U+FFFD REPLACEMENT |
|                           | CHARACTER for the built-in Unicode codecs on    |
|                           | decoding and '?' on encoding.                   |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| ``'xmlcharrefreplace'``   | Replace with the appropriate XML character      |
|                           | reference (only for encoding).                  |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| ``'backslashreplace'``    | Replace with backslashed escape sequences (only |
|                           | for encoding).                                  |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| ``'surrogateescape'``     | Replace byte with surrogate U+DCxx, as defined  |
|                           | in **PEP 383**.                                 |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+

In addition, the following error handlers are specific to a single
codec:

+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------------------+
| Value               | Codec     | Meaning                                     |
+=====================+===========+=============================================+
| ``'surrogatepass'`` | utf-8     | Allow encoding and decoding of surrogate    |
|                     |           | codes in UTF-8.                             |
+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------------------+

New in version 3.1: The ``'surrogateescape'`` and ``'surrogatepass'``
error handlers.

The set of allowed values can be extended via ``register_error()``.


Codec Objects
-------------

The ``Codec`` class defines these methods which also define the
function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

Codec.encode(input[, errors])

   Encodes the object *input* and returns a tuple (output object,
   length consumed). Encoding converts a string object to a bytes
   object using a particular character set encoding (e.g., ``cp1252``
   or ``iso-8859-1``).

   *errors* defines the error handling to apply. It defaults to
   ``'strict'`` handling.

   The method may not store state in the ``Codec`` instance. Use
   ``StreamCodec`` for codecs which have to keep state in order to
   make encoding/decoding efficient.

   The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an
   empty object of the output object type in this situation.

Codec.decode(input[, errors])

   Decodes the object *input* and returns a tuple (output object,
   length consumed).  Decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a
   particular character set encoding to a string object.

   *input* must be a bytes object or one which provides the read-only
   character buffer interface -- for example, buffer objects and
   memory mapped files.

   *errors* defines the error handling to apply. It defaults to
   ``'strict'`` handling.

   The method may not store state in the ``Codec`` instance. Use
   ``StreamCodec`` for codecs which have to keep state in order to
   make encoding/decoding efficient.

   The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an
   empty object of the output object type in this situation.

The ``IncrementalEncoder`` and ``IncrementalDecoder`` classes provide
the basic interface for incremental encoding and decoding.
Encoding/decoding the input isn't done with one call to the stateless
encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the
``encode()``/``decode()`` method of the incremental encoder/decoder.
The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the encoding/decoding
process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the ``encode()``/``decode()`` method is
the same as if all the single inputs were joined into one, and this
input was encoded/decoded with the stateless encoder/decoder.


IncrementalEncoder Objects
--------------------------

The ``IncrementalEncoder`` class is used for encoding an input in
multiple steps. It defines the following methods which every
incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

class class codecs.IncrementalEncoder([errors])

   Constructor for an ``IncrementalEncoder`` instance.

   All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface.
   They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
   ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

   The ``IncrementalEncoder`` may implement different error handling
   schemes by providing the *errors* keyword argument. These
   parameters are predefined:

   * ``'strict'`` Raise ``ValueError`` (or a subclass); this is the
     default.

   * ``'ignore'`` Ignore the character and continue with the next.

   * ``'replace'`` Replace with a suitable replacement character

   * ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` Replace with the appropriate XML
     character reference

   * ``'backslashreplace'`` Replace with backslashed escape sequences.

   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
   name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
   between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
   the ``IncrementalEncoder`` object.

   The set of allowed values for the *errors* argument can be extended
   with ``register_error()``.

   encode(object[, final])

      Encodes *object* (taking the current state of the encoder into
      account) and returns the resulting encoded object. If this is
      the last call to ``encode()`` *final* must be true (the default
      is false).

   reset()

      Reset the encoder to the initial state. The output is discarded:
      call ``.encode('', final=True)`` to reset the encoder and to get
      the output.

IncrementalEncoder.getstate()

   Return the current state of the encoder which must be an integer.
   The implementation should make sure that ``0`` is the most common
   state. (States that are more complicated than integers can be
   converted into an integer by marshaling/pickling the state and
   encoding the bytes of the resulting string into an integer).

IncrementalEncoder.setstate(state)

   Set the state of the encoder to *state*. *state* must be an encoder
   state returned by ``getstate()``.


IncrementalDecoder Objects
--------------------------

The ``IncrementalDecoder`` class is used for decoding an input in
multiple steps. It defines the following methods which every
incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

class class codecs.IncrementalDecoder([errors])

   Constructor for an ``IncrementalDecoder`` instance.

   All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface.
   They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
   ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

   The ``IncrementalDecoder`` may implement different error handling
   schemes by providing the *errors* keyword argument. These
   parameters are predefined:

   * ``'strict'`` Raise ``ValueError`` (or a subclass); this is the
     default.

   * ``'ignore'`` Ignore the character and continue with the next.

   * ``'replace'`` Replace with a suitable replacement character.

   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
   name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
   between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
   the ``IncrementalDecoder`` object.

   The set of allowed values for the *errors* argument can be extended
   with ``register_error()``.

   decode(object[, final])

      Decodes *object* (taking the current state of the decoder into
      account) and returns the resulting decoded object. If this is
      the last call to ``decode()`` *final* must be true (the default
      is false). If *final* is true the decoder must decode the input
      completely and must flush all buffers. If this isn't possible
      (e.g. because of incomplete byte sequences at the end of the
      input) it must initiate error handling just like in the
      stateless case (which might raise an exception).

   reset()

      Reset the decoder to the initial state.

   getstate()

      Return the current state of the decoder. This must be a tuple
      with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the
      still undecoded input. The second must be an integer and can be
      additional state info. (The implementation should make sure that
      ``0`` is the most common additional state info.) If this
      additional state info is ``0`` it must be possible to set the
      decoder to the state which has no input buffered and ``0`` as
      the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
      buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state
      without producing any output. (Additional state info that is
      more complicated than integers can be converted into an integer
      by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes of the
      resulting string into an integer.)

   setstate(state)

      Set the state of the encoder to *state*. *state* must be a
      decoder state returned by ``getstate()``.

The ``StreamWriter`` and ``StreamReader`` classes provide generic
working interfaces which can be used to implement new encoding
submodules very easily. See ``encodings.utf_8`` for an example of how
this is done.


StreamWriter Objects
--------------------

The ``StreamWriter`` class is a subclass of ``Codec`` and defines the
following methods which every stream writer must define in order to be
compatible with the Python codec registry.

class class codecs.StreamWriter(stream[, errors])

   Constructor for a ``StreamWriter`` instance.

   All stream writers must provide this constructor interface. They
   are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
   defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

   *stream* must be a file-like object open for writing binary data.

   The ``StreamWriter`` may implement different error handling schemes
   by providing the *errors* keyword argument. These parameters are
   predefined:

   * ``'strict'`` Raise ``ValueError`` (or a subclass); this is the
     default.

   * ``'ignore'`` Ignore the character and continue with the next.

   * ``'replace'`` Replace with a suitable replacement character

   * ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` Replace with the appropriate XML
     character reference

   * ``'backslashreplace'`` Replace with backslashed escape sequences.

   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
   name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
   between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
   the ``StreamWriter`` object.

   The set of allowed values for the *errors* argument can be extended
   with ``register_error()``.

   write(object)

      Writes the object's contents encoded to the stream.

   writelines(list)

      Writes the concatenated list of strings to the stream (possibly
      by reusing the ``write()`` method).

   reset()

      Flushes and resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.

      Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output is
      put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh data
      without having to rescan the whole stream to recover state.

In addition to the above methods, the ``StreamWriter`` must also
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


StreamReader Objects
--------------------

The ``StreamReader`` class is a subclass of ``Codec`` and defines the
following methods which every stream reader must define in order to be
compatible with the Python codec registry.

class class codecs.StreamReader(stream[, errors])

   Constructor for a ``StreamReader`` instance.

   All stream readers must provide this constructor interface. They
   are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
   defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

   *stream* must be a file-like object open for reading (binary) data.

   The ``StreamReader`` may implement different error handling schemes
   by providing the *errors* keyword argument. These parameters are
   defined:

   * ``'strict'`` Raise ``ValueError`` (or a subclass); this is the
     default.

   * ``'ignore'`` Ignore the character and continue with the next.

   * ``'replace'`` Replace with a suitable replacement character.

   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
   name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
   between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
   the ``StreamReader`` object.

   The set of allowed values for the *errors* argument can be extended
   with ``register_error()``.

   read([size[, chars[, firstline]]])

      Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

      *chars* indicates the number of characters to read from the
      stream. ``read()`` will never return more than *chars*
      characters, but it might return less, if there are not enough
      characters available.

      *size* indicates the approximate maximum number of bytes to read
      from the stream for decoding purposes. The decoder can modify
      this setting as appropriate. The default value -1 indicates to
      read and decode as much as possible.  *size* is intended to
      prevent having to decode huge files in one step.

      *firstline* indicates that it would be sufficient to only return
      the first line, if there are decoding errors on later lines.

      The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it
      should read as much data as is allowed within the definition of
      the encoding and the given size, e.g.  if optional encoding
      endings or state markers are available on the stream, these
      should be read too.

   readline([size[, keepends]])

      Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded data.

      *size*, if given, is passed as size argument to the stream's
      ``readline()`` method.

      If *keepends* is false line-endings will be stripped from the
      lines returned.

   readlines([sizehint[, keepends]])

      Read all lines available on the input stream and return them as
      a list of lines.

      Line-endings are implemented using the codec's decoder method
      and are included in the list entries if *keepends* is true.

      *sizehint*, if given, is passed as the *size* argument to the
      stream's ``read()`` method.

   reset()

      Resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.

      Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This
      method is primarily intended to be able to recover from decoding
      errors.

In addition to the above methods, the ``StreamReader`` must also
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.

The next two base classes are included for convenience. They are not
needed by the codec registry, but may provide useful in practice.


StreamReaderWriter Objects
--------------------------

The ``StreamReaderWriter`` allows wrapping streams which work in both
read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the ``lookup()`` function to construct the instance.

class class codecs.StreamReaderWriter(stream, Reader, Writer, errors)

   Creates a ``StreamReaderWriter`` instance. *stream* must be a file-
   like object. *Reader* and *Writer* must be factory functions or
   classes providing the ``StreamReader`` and ``StreamWriter``
   interface resp. Error handling is done in the same way as defined
   for the stream readers and writers.

``StreamReaderWriter`` instances define the combined interfaces of
``StreamReader`` and ``StreamWriter`` classes. They inherit all other
methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


StreamRecoder Objects
---------------------

The ``StreamRecoder`` provide a frontend - backend view of encoding
data which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding
environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the ``lookup()`` function to construct the instance.

class class codecs.StreamRecoder(stream, encode, decode, Reader, Writer, errors)

   Creates a ``StreamRecoder`` instance which implements a two-way
   conversion: *encode* and *decode* work on the frontend (the input
   to ``read()`` and output of ``write()``) while *Reader* and
   *Writer* work on the backend (reading and writing to the stream).

   You can use these objects to do transparent direct recodings from
   e.g. Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

   *stream* must be a file-like object.

   *encode*, *decode* must adhere to the ``Codec`` interface.
   *Reader*, *Writer* must be factory functions or classes providing
   objects of the ``StreamReader`` and ``StreamWriter`` interface
   respectively.

   *encode* and *decode* are needed for the frontend translation,
   *Reader* and *Writer* for the backend translation.

   Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream
   readers and writers.

``StreamRecoder`` instances define the combined interfaces of
``StreamReader`` and ``StreamWriter`` classes. They inherit all other
methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


Encodings and Unicode
=====================

Strings are stored internally as sequences of codepoints in range ``0
- 10FFFF`` (see **PEP 393** for more details about the
implementation). Once a string object is used outside of CPU and
memory, CPU endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become
an issue.  Transforming a string object into a sequence of bytes is
called encoding and recreating the string object from the sequence of
bytes is known as decoding.  There are many different methods for how
this transformation can be done (these methods are also called
encodings). The simplest method is to map the codepoints 0-255 to the
bytes ``0x0``-``0xff``. This means that a string object that contains
codepoints above ``U+00FF`` can't be encoded with this method (which
is called ``'latin-1'`` or ``'iso-8859-1'``). ``str.encode()`` will
raise a ``UnicodeEncodeError`` that looks like this:
``UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character '\u1234'
in position 3: ordinal not in range(256)``.

There's another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings)
that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how
these codepoints are mapped to the bytes ``0x0``-``0xff``. To see how
this is done simply open e.g. ``encodings/cp1252.py`` (which is an
encoding that is used primarily on Windows). There's a string constant
with 256 characters that shows you which character is mapped to which
byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 codepoints
defined in Unicode. A simple and straightforward way that can store
each Unicode code point, is to store each codepoint as four
consecutive bytes. There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big
endian or in little endian order. These two encodings are called
``UTF-32-BE`` and ``UTF-32-LE`` respectively. Their disadvantage is
that if e.g. you use ``UTF-32-BE`` on a little endian machine you will
always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding. ``UTF-32`` avoids
this problem: bytes will always be in natural endianness. When these
bytes are read by a CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have
to be swapped though. To be able to detect the endianness of a
``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence, there's the so called BOM
("Byte Order Mark"). This is the Unicode character ``U+FEFF``. This
character can be prepended to every ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte
sequence. The byte swapped version of this character (``0xFFFE``) is
an illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text. So when
the first character in an ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence
appears to be a ``U+FFFE`` the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.
Unfortunately the character ``U+FEFF`` had a second purpose as a
``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE``: a character that has no width and
doesn't allow a word to be split. It can e.g. be used to give hints to
a ligature algorithm. With Unicode 4.0 using ``U+FEFF`` as a ``ZERO
WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE`` has been deprecated (with ``U+2060`` (``WORD
JOINER``) assuming this role). Nevertheless Unicode software still
must be able to handle ``U+FEFF`` in both roles: as a BOM it's a
device to determine the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and
vanishes once the byte sequence has been decoded into a string; as a
``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE`` it's a normal character that will be
decoded like any other.

There's another encoding that is able to encoding the full range of
Unicode characters: UTF-8. UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means
there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8. Each byte in a UTF-8
byte sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant
bits) and payload bits. The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four
``1`` bits followed by a ``0`` bit. Unicode characters are encoded
like this (with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the
Unicode character):

+-------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
| Range                               | Encoding                                       |
+=====================================+================================================+
| ``U-00000000`` ... ``U-0000007F``   | 0xxxxxxx                                       |
+-------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
| ``U-00000080`` ... ``U-000007FF``   | 110xxxxx 10xxxxxx                              |
+-------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
| ``U-00000800`` ... ``U-0000FFFF``   | 1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx                     |
+-------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
| ``U-00010000`` ... ``U-0010FFFF``   | 11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx            |
+-------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x
bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ``U+FEFF``
character in the decoded string (even if it's the first character) is
treated as a ``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE``.

Without external information it's impossible to reliably determine
which encoding was used for encoding a string. Each charmap encoding
can decode any random byte sequence. However that's not possible with
UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn't allow
arbitrary byte sequences. To increase the reliability with which a
UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8
(that Python 2.5 calls ``"utf-8-sig"``) for its Notepad program:
Before any of the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8
encoded BOM (which looks like this as a byte sequence: ``0xef``,
``0xbb``, ``0xbf``) is written. As it's rather improbable that any
charmap encoded file starts with these byte values (which would e.g.
map to

   LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESISRIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARKINVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ``utf-8-sig``
encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence. So here the
BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for
generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in
guessing the encoding. On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write
``0xef``, ``0xbb``, ``0xbf`` as the first three bytes to the file. On
decoding ``utf-8-sig`` will skip those three bytes if they appear as
the first three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is
discouraged and should generally be avoided.


Standard Encodings
==================

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables. The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used. Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive. Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen
instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore, e.g.
``'utf-8'`` is a valid alias for the ``'utf_8'`` codec.

**CPython implementation detail:** Some common encodings can bypass
the codecs lookup machinery to improve performance.  These
optimization opportunities are only recognized by CPython for a
limited set of aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, mbcs
(Windows only), ascii, utf-16, and utf-32.  Using alternative
spellings for these encodings may result in slower execution.

Many of the character sets support the same languages. They vary in
individual characters (e.g. whether the EURO SIGN is supported or
not), and in the assignment of characters to code positions. For the
European languages in particular, the following variants typically
exist:

* an ISO 8859 codeset

* a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from a
  8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional
  graphic characters

* an IBM EBCDIC code page

* an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| Codec             | Aliases                          | Languages                        |
+===================+==================================+==================================+
| ascii             | 646, us-ascii                    | English                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| big5              | big5-tw, csbig5                  | Traditional Chinese              |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| big5hkscs         | big5-hkscs, hkscs                | Traditional Chinese              |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp037             | IBM037, IBM039                   | English                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp424             | EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424             | Hebrew                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp437             | 437, IBM437                      | English                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp500             | EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH,      | Western Europe                   |
|                   | IBM500                           |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp720             |                                  | Arabic                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp737             |                                  | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp775             | IBM775                           | Baltic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp850             | 850, IBM850                      | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp852             | 852, IBM852                      | Central and Eastern Europe       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp855             | 855, IBM855                      | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,         |
|                   |                                  | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian     |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp856             |                                  | Hebrew                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp857             | 857, IBM857                      | Turkish                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp858             | 858, IBM858                      | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp860             | 860, IBM860                      | Portuguese                       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp861             | 861, CP-IS, IBM861               | Icelandic                        |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp862             | 862, IBM862                      | Hebrew                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp863             | 863, IBM863                      | Canadian                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp864             | IBM864                           | Arabic                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp865             | 865, IBM865                      | Danish, Norwegian                |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp866             | 866, IBM866                      | Russian                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp869             | 869, CP-GR, IBM869               | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp874             |                                  | Thai                             |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp875             |                                  | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp932             | 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji    | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp949             | 949, ms949, uhc                  | Korean                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp950             | 950, ms950                       | Traditional Chinese              |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1006            |                                  | Urdu                             |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1026            | ibm1026                          | Turkish                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1140            | ibm1140                          | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1250            | windows-1250                     | Central and Eastern Europe       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1251            | windows-1251                     | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,         |
|                   |                                  | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian     |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1252            | windows-1252                     | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1253            | windows-1253                     | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1254            | windows-1254                     | Turkish                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1255            | windows-1255                     | Hebrew                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1256            | windows-1256                     | Arabic                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1257            | windows-1257                     | Baltic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp1258            | windows-1258                     | Vietnamese                       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| cp65001           |                                  | Windows only: Windows UTF-8      |
|                   |                                  | (``CP_UTF8``)  New in version    |
|                   |                                  | 3.3.                             |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| euc_jp            | eucjp, ujis, u-jis               | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| euc_jis_2004      | jisx0213, eucjis2004             | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| euc_jisx0213      | eucjisx0213                      | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| euc_kr            | euckr, korean, ksc5601,          | Korean                           |
|                   | ks_c-5601, ks_c-5601-1987,       |                                  |
|                   | ksx1001, ks_x-1001               |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| gb2312            | chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-   | Simplified Chinese               |
|                   | cn, euccn, eucgb2312-cn,         |                                  |
|                   | gb2312-1980, gb2312-80, iso-     |                                  |
|                   | ir-58                            |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| gbk               | 936, cp936, ms936                | Unified Chinese                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| gb18030           | gb18030-2000                     | Unified Chinese                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| hz                | hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312          | Simplified Chinese               |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp        | csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,          | Japanese                         |
|                   | iso-2022-jp                      |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp_1      | iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1       | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp_2      | iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2       | Japanese, Korean, Simplified     |
|                   |                                  | Chinese, Western Europe, Greek   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp_2004   | iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004 | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp_3      | iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3       | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_jp_ext    | iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext   | Japanese                         |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso2022_kr        | csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,          | Korean                           |
|                   | iso-2022-kr                      |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| latin_1           | iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,     | West Europe                      |
|                   | cp819, latin, latin1, L1         |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_2         | iso-8859-2, latin2, L2           | Central and Eastern Europe       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_3         | iso-8859-3, latin3, L3           | Esperanto, Maltese               |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_4         | iso-8859-4, latin4, L4           | Baltic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_5         | iso-8859-5, cyrillic             | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,         |
|                   |                                  | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian     |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_6         | iso-8859-6, arabic               | Arabic                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_7         | iso-8859-7, greek, greek8        | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_8         | iso-8859-8, hebrew               | Hebrew                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_9         | iso-8859-9, latin5, L5           | Turkish                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_10        | iso-8859-10, latin6, L6          | Nordic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_13        | iso-8859-13, latin7, L7          | Baltic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_14        | iso-8859-14, latin8, L8          | Celtic languages                 |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_15        | iso-8859-15, latin9, L9          | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| iso8859_16        | iso-8859-16, latin10, L10        | South-Eastern Europe             |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| johab             | cp1361, ms1361                   | Korean                           |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| koi8_r            |                                  | Russian                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| koi8_u            |                                  | Ukrainian                        |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_cyrillic      | maccyrillic                      | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,         |
|                   |                                  | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian     |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_greek         | macgreek                         | Greek                            |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_iceland       | maciceland                       | Icelandic                        |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_latin2        | maclatin2, maccentraleurope      | Central and Eastern Europe       |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_roman         | macroman, macintosh              | Western Europe                   |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| mac_turkish       | macturkish                       | Turkish                          |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| ptcp154           | csptcp154, pt154, cp154,         | Kazakh                           |
|                   | cyrillic-asian                   |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| shift_jis         | csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis,      | Japanese                         |
|                   | s_jis                            |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| shift_jis_2004    | shiftjis2004, sjis_2004,         | Japanese                         |
|                   | sjis2004                         |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| shift_jisx0213    | shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,        | Japanese                         |
|                   | s_jisx0213                       |                                  |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_32            | U32, utf32                       | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_32_be         | UTF-32BE                         | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_32_le         | UTF-32LE                         | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_16            | U16, utf16                       | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_16_be         | UTF-16BE                         | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_16_le         | UTF-16LE                         | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_7             | U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7            | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_8             | U8, UTF, utf8                    | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| utf_8_sig         |                                  | all languages                    |
+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+

+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| Codec                | Aliases   | Purpose                     |
+======================+===========+=============================+
| idna                 |           | Implements **RFC 3490**,    |
|                      |           | see also ``encodings.idna`` |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| mbcs                 | dbcs      | Windows only: Encode        |
|                      |           | operand according to the    |
|                      |           | ANSI codepage (CP_ACP)      |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| palmos               |           | Encoding of PalmOS 3.5      |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| punycode             |           | Implements **RFC 3492**     |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| raw_unicode_escape   |           | Produce a string that is    |
|                      |           | suitable as raw Unicode     |
|                      |           | literal in Python source    |
|                      |           | code                        |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| undefined            |           | Raise an exception for all  |
|                      |           | conversions. Can be used as |
|                      |           | the system encoding if no   |
|                      |           | automatic coercion between  |
|                      |           | byte and Unicode strings is |
|                      |           | desired.                    |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| unicode_escape       |           | Produce a string that is    |
|                      |           | suitable as Unicode literal |
|                      |           | in Python source code       |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
| unicode_internal     |           | Return the internal         |
|                      |           | representation of the       |
|                      |           | operand  Deprecated since   |
|                      |           | version 3.3.                |
+----------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+

The following codecs provide bytes-to-bytes mappings.

+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| Codec                | Purpose                     |
+======================+=============================+
| base64_codec         | Convert operand to MIME     |
|                      | base64 (the result always   |
|                      | includes a trailing         |
|                      | ``'\n'``)                   |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| bz2_codec            | Compress the operand using  |
|                      | bz2                         |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| hex_codec            | Convert operand to          |
|                      | hexadecimal representation, |
|                      | with two digits per byte    |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| quopri_codec         | Convert operand to MIME     |
|                      | quoted printable            |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| uu_codec             | Convert the operand using   |
|                      | uuencode                    |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| zlib_codec           | Compress the operand using  |
|                      | gzip                        |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+

The following codecs provide string-to-string mappings.

+----------------------+-----------------------------+
| Codec                | Purpose                     |
+======================+=============================+
| rot_13               | Returns the Caesar-cypher   |
|                      | encryption of the operand   |
+----------------------+-----------------------------+

New in version 3.2: bytes-to-bytes and string-to-string codecs.


``encodings.idna`` --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
=====================================================================

This module implements **RFC 3490** (Internationalized Domain Names in
Applications) and **RFC 3492** (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ``punycode``
encoding and ``stringprep``.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters
in domain names. A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such
as ``www.Alliancefrançaise.nu``) is converted into an ASCII-compatible
encoding (ACE, such as ``www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu``). The ACE
form of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary
characters are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP
*Host* fields, and so on. This conversion is carried out in the
application; if possible invisible to the user: The application should
transparently convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and
convert back ACE labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways:  the ``idna`` codec
performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input
string into labels based on the separator characters defined in
section 3.1 (1) of **RFC 3490** and converting each label to ACE as
required, and conversely separating an input byte string into labels
based on the ``.`` separator and converting any ACE labels found into
unicode.  Furthermore, the ``socket`` module transparently converts
Unicode host names to ACE, so that applications need not be concerned
about converting host names themselves when they pass them to the
socket module. On top of that, modules that have host names as
function parameters, such as ``http.client`` and ``ftplib``, accept
Unicode host names (``http.client`` then also transparently sends an
IDNA hostname in the *Host* field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name
lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: Applications
wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to
Unicode.

The module ``encodings.idna`` also implements the nameprep procedure,
which performs certain normalizations on host names, to achieve case-
insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify similar
characters. The nameprep functions can be used directly if desired.

encodings.idna.nameprep(label)

   Return the nameprepped version of *label*. The implementation
   currently assumes query strings, so ``AllowUnassigned`` is true.

encodings.idna.ToASCII(label)

   Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in **RFC 3490**.
   ``UseSTD3ASCIIRules`` is assumed to be false.

encodings.idna.ToUnicode(label)

   Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in **RFC 3490**.


``encodings.mbcs`` --- Windows ANSI codepage
============================================

Encode operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

Availability: Windows only.

Changed in version 3.3: Support any error handler.

Changed in version 3.2: Before 3.2, the *errors* argument was ignored;
``'replace'`` was always used to encode, and ``'ignore'`` to decode.


``encodings.utf_8_sig`` --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
==========================================================

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec: On encoding a
UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes. For
the stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the
byte stream).  For decoding an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start
of the data will be skipped.
