
Built-in Functions
******************

The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into
it that are always available.  They are listed here in alphabetical
order.

+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
|                     |                   | Built-in Functions |                  |                      |
+=====================+===================+====================+==================+======================+
| ``abs()``           | ``dict()``        | ``help()``         | ``min()``        | ``setattr()``        |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``all()``           | ``dir()``         | ``hex()``          | ``next()``       | ``slice()``          |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``any()``           | ``divmod()``      | ``id()``           | ``object()``     | ``sorted()``         |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``ascii()``         | ``enumerate()``   | ``input()``        | ``oct()``        | ``staticmethod()``   |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``bin()``           | ``eval()``        | ``int()``          | ``open()``       | ``str()``            |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``bool()``          | ``exec()``        | ``isinstance()``   | ``ord()``        | ``sum()``            |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``bytearray()``     | ``filter()``      | ``issubclass()``   | ``pow()``        | ``super()``          |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``bytes()``         | ``float()``       | ``iter()``         | ``print()``      | ``tuple()``          |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``callable()``      | ``format()``      | ``len()``          | ``property()``   | ``type()``           |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``chr()``           | ``frozenset()``   | ``list()``         | ``range()``      | ``vars()``           |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``classmethod()``   | ``getattr()``     | ``locals()``       | ``repr()``       | ``zip()``            |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``compile()``       | ``globals()``     | ``map()``          | ``reversed()``   | ``__import__()``     |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``complex()``       | ``hasattr()``     | ``max()``          | ``round()``      |                      |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+
| ``delattr()``       | ``hash()``        | ``memoryview()``   | ``set()``        |                      |
+---------------------+-------------------+--------------------+------------------+----------------------+

abs(x)

   Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
   integer or a floating point number.  If the argument is a complex
   number, its magnitude is returned.

all(iterable)

   Return True if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the
   iterable is empty).  Equivalent to:

      def all(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if not element:
                  return False
          return True

any(iterable)

   Return True if any element of the *iterable* is true.  If the
   iterable is empty, return False.  Equivalent to:

      def any(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if element:
                  return True
          return False

ascii(object)

   As ``repr()``, return a string containing a printable
   representation of an object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in
   the string returned by ``repr()`` using ``\x``, ``\u`` or ``\U``
   escapes.  This generates a string similar to that returned by
   ``repr()`` in Python 2.

bin(x)

   Convert an integer number to a binary string. The result is a valid
   Python expression.  If *x* is not a Python ``int`` object, it has
   to define an ``__index__()`` method that returns an integer.

bool([x])

   Convert a value to a Boolean, using the standard *truth testing
   procedure*.  If *x* is false or omitted, this returns ``False``;
   otherwise it returns ``True``. ``bool`` is also a class, which is a
   subclass of ``int`` (see *Numeric Types --- int, float, complex*).
   Class ``bool`` cannot be subclassed further.  Its only instances
   are ``False`` and ``True`` (see *Boolean Values*).

bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

   Return a new array of bytes.  The ``bytearray`` type is a mutable
   sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  It has most of the
   usual methods of mutable sequences, described in *Mutable Sequence
   Types*, as well as most methods that the ``bytes`` type has, see
   *Bytes and Byte Array Methods*.

   The optional *source* parameter can be used to initialize the array
   in a few different ways:

   * If it is a *string*, you must also give the *encoding* (and
     optionally, *errors*) parameters; ``bytearray()`` then converts
     the string to bytes using ``str.encode()``.

   * If it is an *integer*, the array will have that size and will be
     initialized with null bytes.

   * If it is an object conforming to the *buffer* interface, a read-
     only buffer of the object will be used to initialize the bytes
     array.

   * If it is an *iterable*, it must be an iterable of integers in the
     range ``0 <= x < 256``, which are used as the initial contents of
     the array.

   Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.

bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

   Return a new "bytes" object, which is an immutable sequence of
   integers in the range ``0 <= x < 256``.  ``bytes`` is an immutable
   version of ``bytearray`` -- it has the same non-mutating methods
   and the same indexing and slicing behavior.

   Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for
   ``bytearray()``.

   Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see *String and
   Bytes literals*.

callable(object)

   Return ``True`` if the *object* argument appears callable,
   ``False`` if not.  If this returns true, it is still possible that
   a call fails, but if it is false, calling *object* will never
   succeed. Note that classes are callable (calling a class returns a
   new instance); instances are callable if their class has a
   ``__call__()`` method.

   New in version 3.2: This function was first removed in Python 3.0
   and then brought back in Python 3.2.

chr(i)

   Return the string representing a character whose Unicode codepoint
   is the integer *i*.  For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string
   ``'a'``. This is the inverse of ``ord()``.  The valid range for the
   argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in base 16).
   ``ValueError`` will be raised if *i* is outside that range.

   Note that on narrow Unicode builds, the result is a string of
   length two for *i* greater than 65,535 (0xFFFF in hexadecimal).

classmethod(function)

   Return a class method for *function*.

   A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just
   like an instance method receives the instance. To declare a class
   method, use this idiom:

      class C:
          @classmethod
          def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@classmethod`` form is a function *decorator* -- see the
   description of function definitions in *Function definitions* for
   details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an
   instance (such as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for
   its class. If a class method is called for a derived class, the
   derived class object is passed as the implied first argument.

   Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you
   want those, see ``staticmethod()`` in this section.

   For more information on class methods, consult the documentation on
   the standard type hierarchy in *The standard type hierarchy*.

compile(source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)

   Compile the *source* into a code or AST object.  Code objects can
   be executed by ``exec()`` or ``eval()``.  *source* can either be a
   string or an AST object.  Refer to the ``ast`` module documentation
   for information on how to work with AST objects.

   The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code
   was read; pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a
   file (``'<string>'`` is commonly used).

   The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled;
   it can be ``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of
   statements, ``'eval'`` if it consists of a single expression, or
   ``'single'`` if it consists of a single interactive statement (in
   the latter case, expression statements that evaluate to something
   other than ``None`` will be printed).

   The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which
   future statements (see **PEP 236**) affect the compilation of
   *source*.  If neither is present (or both are zero) the code is
   compiled with those future statements that are in effect in the
   code that is calling compile.  If the *flags* argument is given and
   *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the future statements
   specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to those
   that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer
   then the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect
   around the call to compile are ignored.

   Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed
   together to specify multiple statements.  The bitfield required to
   specify a given feature can be found as the ``compiler_flag``
   attribute on the ``_Feature`` instance in the ``__future__``
   module.

   The argument *optimize* specifies the optimization level of the
   compiler; the default value of ``-1`` selects the optimization
   level of the interpreter as given by *-O* options.  Explicit levels
   are ``0`` (no optimization; ``__debug__`` is true), ``1`` (asserts
   are removed, ``__debug__`` is false) or ``2`` (docstrings are
   removed too).

   This function raises ``SyntaxError`` if the compiled source is
   invalid, and ``TypeError`` if the source contains null bytes.

   Note: When compiling a string with multi-line code in ``'single'`` or
     ``'eval'`` mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
     character.  This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and
     complete statements in the ``code`` module.

   Changed in version 3.2: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines.
   Also input in ``'exec'`` mode does not have to end in a newline
   anymore.  Added the *optimize* parameter.

complex([real[, imag]])

   Create a complex number with the value *real* + *imag**j or convert
   a string or number to a complex number.  If the first parameter is
   a string, it will be interpreted as a complex number and the
   function must be called without a second parameter.  The second
   parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any numeric
   type (including complex). If *imag* is omitted, it defaults to zero
   and the function serves as a numeric conversion function like
   ``int()`` and ``float()``.  If both arguments are omitted, returns
   ``0j``.

   Note: When converting from a string, the string must not contain
     whitespace around the central ``+`` or ``-`` operator.  For
     example, ``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')``
     raises ``ValueError``.

   The complex type is described in *Numeric Types --- int, float,
   complex*.

delattr(object, name)

   This is a relative of ``setattr()``.  The arguments are an object
   and a string.  The string must be the name of one of the object's
   attributes.  The function deletes the named attribute, provided the
   object allows it.  For example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is
   equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.

dict(**kwarg)
dict(mapping, **kwarg)
dict(iterable, **kwarg)

   Create a new dictionary.  The ``dict`` object is the dictionary
   class. See ``dict`` and *Mapping Types --- dict* for documentation
   about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in ``list``, ``set``, and
   ``tuple`` classes, as well as the ``collections`` module.

dir([object])

   Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local
   scope.  With an argument, attempt to return a list of valid
   attributes for that object.

   If the object has a method named ``__dir__()``, this method will be
   called and must return the list of attributes. This allows objects
   that implement a custom ``__getattr__()`` or ``__getattribute__()``
   function to customize the way ``dir()`` reports their attributes.

   If the object does not provide ``__dir__()``, the function tries
   its best to gather information from the object's ``__dict__``
   attribute, if defined, and from its type object.  The resulting
   list is not necessarily complete, and may be inaccurate when the
   object has a custom ``__getattr__()``.

   The default ``dir()`` mechanism behaves differently with different
   types of objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant,
   rather than complete, information:

   * If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of
     the module's attributes.

   * If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the
     names of its attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its
     bases.

   * Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the
     names of its class's attributes, and recursively of the
     attributes of its class's base classes.

   The resulting list is sorted alphabetically.  For example:

   >>> import struct
   >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
   ['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'struct']
   >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
   ['Struct', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__',
    '__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
    'unpack', 'unpack_from']
   >>> class Shape:
           def __dir__(self):
               return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
   >>> s = Shape()
   >>> dir(s)
   ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']

   Note: Because ``dir()`` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use
     at an interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set
     of names more than it tries to supply a rigorously or
     consistently defined set of names, and its detailed behavior may
     change across releases.  For example, metaclass attributes are
     not in the result list when the argument is a class.

divmod(a, b)

   Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of
   numbers consisting of their quotient and remainder when using
   integer division.  With mixed operand types, the rules for binary
   arithmetic operators apply.  For integers, the result is the same
   as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point numbers the result is
   ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a / b)`` but may
   be 1 less than that.  In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very close
   to *a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and
   ``0 <= abs(a % b) < abs(b)``.

enumerate(iterable, start=0)

   Return an enumerate object. *iterable* must be a sequence, an
   *iterator*, or some other object which supports iteration. The
   ``__next__()`` method of the iterator returned by ``enumerate()``
   returns a tuple containing a count (from *start* which defaults to
   0) and the values obtained from iterating over *iterable*.

   >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
   >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
   [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
   >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
   [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

   Equivalent to:

      def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
          n = start
          for elem in sequence:
              yield n, elem
              n += 1

eval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)

   The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals.  If
   provided, *globals* must be a dictionary.  If provided, *locals*
   can be any mapping object.

   The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python
   expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the
   *globals* and *locals* dictionaries as global and local namespace.
   If the *globals* dictionary is present and lacks '__builtins__',
   the current globals are copied into *globals* before *expression*
   is parsed.  This means that *expression* normally has full access
   to the standard ``builtins`` module and restricted environments are
   propagated.  If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to
   the *globals* dictionary.  If both dictionaries are omitted, the
   expression is executed in the environment where ``eval()`` is
   called.  The return value is the result of the evaluated
   expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.  Example:

   >>> x = 1
   >>> eval('x+1')
   2

   This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects
   (such as those created by ``compile()``).  In this case pass a code
   object instead of a string.  If the code object has been compiled
   with ``'exec'`` as the *mode* argument, ``eval()``'s return value
   will be ``None``.

   Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the
   ``exec()`` function.  The ``globals()`` and ``locals()`` functions
   returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively,
   which may be useful to pass around for use by ``eval()`` or
   ``exec()``.

   See ``ast.literal_eval()`` for a function that can safely evaluate
   strings with expressions containing only literals.

exec(object[, globals[, locals]])

   This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. *object*
   must be either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the
   string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then
   executed (unless a syntax error occurs). [1] If it is a code
   object, it is simply executed.  In all cases, the code that's
   executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section
   "File input" in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the ``return``
   and ``yield`` statements may not be used outside of function
   definitions even within the context of code passed to the
   ``exec()`` function. The return value is ``None``.

   In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is
   executed in the current scope.  If only *globals* is provided, it
   must be a dictionary, which will be used for both the global and
   the local variables.  If *globals* and *locals* are given, they are
   used for the global and local variables, respectively.  If
   provided, *locals* can be any mapping object.  Remember that at
   module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec
   gets two separate objects as *globals* and *locals*, the code will
   be executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.

   If the *globals* dictionary does not contain a value for the key
   ``__builtins__``, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in
   module ``builtins`` is inserted under that key.  That way you can
   control what builtins are available to the executed code by
   inserting your own ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals*
   before passing it to ``exec()``.

   Note: The built-in functions ``globals()`` and ``locals()`` return the
     current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
     useful to pass around for use as the second and third argument to
     ``exec()``.

   Note: The default *locals* act as described for function ``locals()``
     below: modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should
     not be attempted. Pass an explicit *locals* dictionary if you
     need to see effects of the code on *locals* after function
     ``exec()`` returns.

filter(function, iterable)

   Construct an iterator from those elements of *iterable* for which
   *function* returns true.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a
   container which supports iteration, or an iterator.  If *function*
   is ``None``, the identity function is assumed, that is, all
   elements of *iterable* that are false are removed.

   Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to the
   generator expression ``(item for item in iterable if
   function(item))`` if function is not ``None`` and ``(item for item
   in iterable if item)`` if function is ``None``.

   See ``itertools.filterfalse()`` for the complementary function that
   returns elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns false.

float([x])

   Convert a string or a number to floating point.

   If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number,
   optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in
   whitespace.  The optional sign may be ``'+'`` or ``'-'``; a ``'+'``
   sign has no effect on the value produced.  The argument may also be
   a string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or a positive or
   negative infinity.  More precisely, the input must conform to the
   following grammar after leading and trailing whitespace characters
   are removed:

      sign           ::= "+" | "-"
      infinity       ::= "Infinity" | "inf"
      nan            ::= "nan"
      numeric_value  ::= floatnumber | infinity | nan
      numeric_string ::= [sign] numeric_value

   Here ``floatnumber`` is the form of a Python floating-point
   literal, described in *Floating point literals*.  Case is not
   significant, so, for example, "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY" and
   "iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

   Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point
   number, a floating point number with the same value (within
   Python's floating point precision) is returned.  If the argument is
   outside the range of a Python float, an ``OverflowError`` will be
   raised.

   For a general Python object ``x``, ``float(x)`` delegates to
   ``x.__float__()``.

   If no argument is given, ``0.0`` is returned.

   Examples:

      >>> float('+1.23')
      1.23
      >>> float('   -12345\n')
      -12345.0
      >>> float('1e-003')
      0.001
      >>> float('+1E6')
      1000000.0
      >>> float('-Infinity')
      -inf

   The float type is described in *Numeric Types --- int, float,
   complex*.

format(value[, format_spec])

   Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
   *format_spec*.  The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on
   the type of the *value* argument, however there is a standard
   formatting syntax that is used by most built-in types: *Format
   Specification Mini-Language*.

   The default *format_spec* is an empty string which usually gives
   the same effect as calling ``str(value)``.

   A call to ``format(value, format_spec)`` is translated to
   ``type(value).__format__(format_spec)`` which bypasses the instance
   dictionary when searching for the value's ``__format__()`` method.
   A ``TypeError`` exception is raised if the method is not found or
   if either the *format_spec* or the return value are not strings.

frozenset([iterable])

   Return a new ``frozenset`` object, optionally with elements taken
   from *iterable*.  ``frozenset`` is a built-in class.  See
   ``frozenset`` and *Set Types --- set, frozenset* for documentation
   about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in ``set``, ``list``, ``tuple``,
   and ``dict`` classes, as well as the ``collections`` module.

getattr(object, name[, default])

   Return the value of the named attribute of *object*.  *name* must
   be a string. If the string is the name of one of the object's
   attributes, the result is the value of that attribute.  For
   example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``x.foobar``.
   If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
   provided, otherwise ``AttributeError`` is raised.

globals()

   Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table.
   This is always the dictionary of the current module (inside a
   function or method, this is the module where it is defined, not the
   module from which it is called).

hasattr(object, name)

   The arguments are an object and a string.  The result is ``True``
   if the string is the name of one of the object's attributes,
   ``False`` if not. (This is implemented by calling ``getattr(object,
   name)`` and seeing whether it raises an ``AttributeError`` or not.)

hash(object)

   Return the hash value of the object (if it has one).  Hash values
   are integers. They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys
   during a dictionary lookup. Numeric values that compare equal have
   the same hash value (even if they are of different types, as is the
   case for 1 and 1.0).

help([object])

   Invoke the built-in help system.  (This function is intended for
   interactive use.)  If no argument is given, the interactive help
   system starts on the interpreter console.  If the argument is a
   string, then the string is looked up as the name of a module,
   function, class, method, keyword, or documentation topic, and a
   help page is printed on the console.  If the argument is any other
   kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.

   This function is added to the built-in namespace by the ``site``
   module.

hex(x)

   Convert an integer number to a hexadecimal string. The result is a
   valid Python expression.  If *x* is not a Python ``int`` object, it
   has to define an ``__index__()`` method that returns an integer.

   Note: To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use
     the ``float.hex()`` method.

id(object)

   Return the "identity" of an object.  This is an integer which is
   guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its
   lifetime. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the
   same ``id()`` value.

   **CPython implementation detail:** This is the address of the
   object in memory.

input([prompt])

   If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard
   output without a trailing newline.  The function then reads a line
   from input, converts it to a string (stripping a trailing newline),
   and returns that.  When EOF is read, ``EOFError`` is raised.
   Example:

      >>> s = input('--> ')
      --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
      >>> s
      "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

   If the ``readline`` module was loaded, then ``input()`` will use it
   to provide elaborate line editing and history features.

int(x=0)
int(x, base=10)

   Convert a number or string *x* to an integer, or return ``0`` if no
   arguments are given.  If *x* is a number, return ``x.__int__()``.
   For floating point numbers, this truncates towards zero.

   If *x* is not a number or if *base* is given, then *x* must be a
   string, ``bytes``, or ``bytearray`` instance representing an
   *integer literal* in radix *base*.  Optionally, the literal can be
   preceded by ``+`` or ``-`` (with no space in between) and
   surrounded by whitespace.  A base-n literal consists of the digits
   0 to n-1, with ``a`` to ``z`` (or ``A`` to ``Z``) having values 10
   to 35.  The default *base* is 10. The allowed values are 0 and
   2-36. Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with
   ``0b``/``0B``, ``0o``/``0O``, or ``0x``/``0X``, as with integer
   literals in code.  Base 0 means to interpret exactly as a code
   literal, so that the actual base is 2, 8, 10, or 16, and so that
   ``int('010', 0)`` is not legal, while ``int('010')`` is, as well as
   ``int('010', 8)``.

   The integer type is described in *Numeric Types --- int, float,
   complex*.

isinstance(object, classinfo)

   Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the
   *classinfo* argument, or of a (direct, indirect or *virtual*)
   subclass thereof.  If *object* is not an object of the given type,
   the function always returns false.  If *classinfo* is not a class
   (type object), it may be a tuple of type objects, or may
   recursively contain other such tuples (other sequence types are not
   accepted).  If *classinfo* is not a type or tuple of types and such
   tuples, a ``TypeError`` exception is raised.

issubclass(class, classinfo)

   Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct, indirect or
   *virtual*) of *classinfo*.  A class is considered a subclass of
   itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class objects, in which case
   every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other case, a
   ``TypeError`` exception is raised.

iter(object[, sentinel])

   Return an *iterator* object.  The first argument is interpreted
   very differently depending on the presence of the second argument.
   Without a second argument, *object* must be a collection object
   which supports the iteration protocol (the ``__iter__()`` method),
   or it must support the sequence protocol (the ``__getitem__()``
   method with integer arguments starting at ``0``).  If it does not
   support either of those protocols, ``TypeError`` is raised. If the
   second argument, *sentinel*, is given, then *object* must be a
   callable object.  The iterator created in this case will call
   *object* with no arguments for each call to its ``__next__()``
   method; if the value returned is equal to *sentinel*,
   ``StopIteration`` will be raised, otherwise the value will be
   returned.

   One useful application of the second form of ``iter()`` is to read
   lines of a file until a certain line is reached.  The following
   example reads a file until the ``readline()`` method returns an
   empty string:

      with open('mydata.txt') as fp:
          for line in iter(fp.readline, ''):
              process_line(line)

len(s)

   Return the length (the number of items) of an object.  The argument
   may be a sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping
   (dictionary).

list([iterable])

   Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as
   *iterable*'s items.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a
   container that supports iteration, or an iterator object.  If
   *iterable* is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar
   to ``iterable[:]``.  For instance, ``list('abc')`` returns ``['a',
   'b', 'c']`` and ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``. If no
   argument is given, returns a new empty list, ``[]``.

   ``list`` is a mutable sequence type, as documented in *Sequence
   Types --- str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, range*.

locals()

   Update and return a dictionary representing the current local
   symbol table. Free variables are returned by ``locals()`` when it
   is called in function blocks, but not in class blocks.

   Note: The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes
     may not affect the values of local and free variables used by the
     interpreter.

map(function, iterable, ...)

   Return an iterator that applies *function* to every item of
   *iterable*, yielding the results.  If additional *iterable*
   arguments are passed, *function* must take that many arguments and
   is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel.  With
   multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the shortest iterable
   is exhausted.  For cases where the function inputs are already
   arranged into argument tuples, see ``itertools.starmap()``.

max(iterable, *[, key])
max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])

   Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or
   more arguments.

   If one positional argument is provided, *iterable* must be a non-
   empty iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list).  The
   largest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more
   positional arguments are provided, the largest of the positional
   arguments is returned.

   The optional keyword-only *key* argument specifies a one-argument
   ordering function like that used for ``list.sort()``.

   If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one
   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability
   preserving tools such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc,
   reverse=True)[0]`` and ``heapq.nlargest(1, iterable,
   key=keyfunc)``.

memoryview(obj)

   Return a "memory view" object created from the given argument.  See
   *memoryview type* for more information.

min(iterable, *[, key])
min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])

   Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or
   more arguments.

   If one positional argument is provided, *iterable* must be a non-
   empty iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list).  The
   smallest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more
   positional arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional
   arguments is returned.

   The optional keyword-only *key* argument specifies a one-argument
   ordering function like that used for ``list.sort()``.

   If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one
   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability
   preserving tools such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]`` and
   ``heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)``.

next(iterator[, default])

   Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its
   ``__next__()`` method.  If *default* is given, it is returned if
   the iterator is exhausted, otherwise ``StopIteration`` is raised.

object()

   Return a new featureless object.  ``object`` is a base for all
   classes. It has the methods that are common to all instances of
   Python classes.  This function does not accept any arguments.

   Note: ``object`` does *not* have a ``__dict__``, so you can't assign
     arbitrary attributes to an instance of the ``object`` class.

oct(x)

   Convert an integer number to an octal string.  The result is a
   valid Python expression.  If *x* is not a Python ``int`` object, it
   has to define an ``__index__()`` method that returns an integer.

open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True)

   Open *file* and return a corresponding *file object*.  If the file
   cannot be opened, an ``IOError`` is raised.

   *file* is either a string or bytes object giving the pathname
   (absolute or relative to the current working directory) of the file
   to be opened or an integer file descriptor of the file to be
   wrapped.  (If a file descriptor is given, it is closed when the
   returned I/O object is closed, unless *closefd* is set to
   ``False``.)

   *mode* is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the
   file is opened.  It defaults to ``'r'`` which means open for
   reading in text mode. Other common values are ``'w'`` for writing
   (truncating the file if it already exists), and ``'a'`` for
   appending (which on *some* Unix systems, means that *all* writes
   append to the end of the file regardless of the current seek
   position).  In text mode, if *encoding* is not specified the
   encoding used is platform dependent. (For reading and writing raw
   bytes use binary mode and leave *encoding* unspecified.)  The
   available modes are:

   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | Character | Meaning                                                         |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'r'``   | open for reading (default)                                      |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'w'``   | open for writing, truncating the file first                     |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'a'``   | open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'b'``   | binary mode                                                     |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'t'``   | text mode (default)                                             |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'+'``   | open a disk file for updating (reading and writing)             |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
   | ``'U'``   | universal newlines mode (for backwards compatibility; should    |
   |           | not be used in new code)                                        |
   +-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+

   The default mode is ``'r'`` (open for reading text, synonym of
   ``'rt'``). For binary read-write access, the mode ``'w+b'`` opens
   and truncates the file to 0 bytes.  ``'r+b'`` opens the file
   without truncation.

   As mentioned in the *Overview*, Python distinguishes between binary
   and text I/O.  Files opened in binary mode (including ``'b'`` in
   the *mode* argument) return contents as ``bytes`` objects without
   any decoding.  In text mode (the default, or when ``'t'`` is
   included in the *mode* argument), the contents of the file are
   returned as ``str``, the bytes having been first decoded using a
   platform-dependent encoding or using the specified *encoding* if
   given.

   Note: Python doesn't depend on the underlying operating system's notion
     of text files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and
     is therefore platform-independent.

   *buffering* is an optional integer used to set the buffering
   policy.  Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary
   mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable in text mode), and
   an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a fixed-size chunk
   buffer.  When no *buffering* argument is given, the default
   buffering policy works as follows:

   * Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the
     buffer is chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the
     underlying device's "block size" and falling back on
     ``io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE``.  On many systems, the buffer will
     typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.

   * "Interactive" text files (files for which ``isatty()`` returns
     True) use line buffering.  Other text files use the policy
     described above for binary files.

   *encoding* is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the
   file. This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding
   is platform dependent (whatever ``locale.getpreferredencoding()``
   returns), but any encoding supported by Python can be used.  See
   the ``codecs`` module for the list of supported encodings.

   *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
   decoding errors are to be handled--this cannot be used in binary
   mode.  Pass ``'strict'`` to raise a ``ValueError`` exception if
   there is an encoding error (the default of ``None`` has the same
   effect), or pass ``'ignore'`` to ignore errors.  (Note that
   ignoring encoding errors can lead to data loss.) ``'replace'``
   causes a replacement marker (such as ``'?'``) to be inserted where
   there is malformed data.  When writing, ``'xmlcharrefreplace'``
   (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or
   ``'backslashreplace'`` (replace with backslashed escape sequences)
   can be used.  Any other error handling name that has been
   registered with ``codecs.register_error()`` is also valid.

   *newline* controls how *universal newlines* mode works (it only
   applies to text mode).  It can be ``None``, ``''``, ``'\n'``,
   ``'\r'``, and ``'\r\n'``.  It works as follows:

   * When reading input from the stream, if *newline* is ``None``,
     universal newlines mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end
     in ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``, and these are translated
     into ``'\n'`` before being returned to the caller.  If it is
     ``''``, universal newlines mode is enabled, but line endings are
     returned to the caller untranslated.  If it has any of the other
     legal values, input lines are only terminated by the given
     string, and the line ending is returned to the caller
     untranslated.

   * When writing output to the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, any
     ``'\n'`` characters written are translated to the system default
     line separator, ``os.linesep``.  If *newline* is ``''`` or
     ``'\n'``, no translation takes place.  If *newline* is any of the
     other legal values, any ``'\n'`` characters written are
     translated to the given string.

   If *closefd* is ``False`` and a file descriptor rather than a
   filename was given, the underlying file descriptor will be kept
   open when the file is closed.  If a filename is given *closefd* has
   no effect and must be ``True`` (the default).

   The type of *file object* returned by the ``open()`` function
   depends on the mode.  When ``open()`` is used to open a file in a
   text mode (``'w'``, ``'r'``, ``'wt'``, ``'rt'``, etc.), it returns
   a subclass of ``io.TextIOBase`` (specifically
   ``io.TextIOWrapper``).  When used to open a file in a binary mode
   with buffering, the returned class is a subclass of
   ``io.BufferedIOBase``.  The exact class varies: in read binary
   mode, it returns a ``io.BufferedReader``; in write binary and
   append binary modes, it returns a ``io.BufferedWriter``, and in
   read/write mode, it returns a ``io.BufferedRandom``.  When
   buffering is disabled, the raw stream, a subclass of
   ``io.RawIOBase``, ``io.FileIO``, is returned.

   See also the file handling modules, such as, ``fileinput``, ``io``
   (where ``open()`` is declared), ``os``, ``os.path``, ``tempfile``,
   and ``shutil``.

ord(c)

   Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an
   integer representing the Unicode code point of that character.  For
   example, ``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97`` and
   ``ord('\u2020')`` returns ``8224``.  This is the inverse of
   ``chr()``.

   On wide Unicode builds, if the argument length is not one, a
   ``TypeError`` will be raised.  On narrow Unicode builds, strings of
   length two are accepted when they form a UTF-16 surrogate pair.

pow(x, y[, z])

   Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the
   power *y*, modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) %
   z``). The two-argument form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using
   the power operator: ``x**y``.

   The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types,
   the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
   ``int`` operands, the result has the same type as the operands
   (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative; in that
   case, all arguments are converted to float and a float result is
   delivered.  For example, ``10**2`` returns ``100``, but ``10**-2``
   returns ``0.01``.  If the second argument is negative, the third
   argument must be omitted.  If *z* is present, *x* and *y* must be
   of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative.

print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout)

   Print *objects* to the stream *file*, separated by *sep* and
   followed by *end*.  *sep*, *end* and *file*, if present, must be
   given as keyword arguments.

   All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like ``str()``
   does and written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by
   *end*.  Both *sep* and *end* must be strings; they can also be
   ``None``, which means to use the default values.  If no *objects*
   are given, ``print()`` will just write *end*.

   The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)``
   method; if it is not present or ``None``, ``sys.stdout`` will be
   used. Output buffering is determined by *file*. Use
   ``file.flush()`` to ensure, for instance, immediate appearance on a
   screen.

property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

   Return a property attribute.

   *fget* is a function for getting an attribute value, likewise
   *fset* is a function for setting, and *fdel* a function for
   del'ing, an attribute.  Typical use is to define a managed
   attribute ``x``:

      class C:
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          def getx(self):
              return self._x
          def setx(self, value):
              self._x = value
          def delx(self):
              del self._x
          x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

   If then *c* is an instance of *C*, ``c.x`` will invoke the getter,
   ``c.x = value`` will invoke the setter and ``del c.x`` the deleter.

   If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute.
   Otherwise, the property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it
   exists).  This makes it possible to create read-only properties
   easily using ``property()`` as a *decorator*:

      class Parrot:
          def __init__(self):
              self._voltage = 100000

          @property
          def voltage(self):
              """Get the current voltage."""
              return self._voltage

   turns the ``voltage()`` method into a "getter" for a read-only
   attribute with the same name.

   A property object has ``getter``, ``setter``, and ``deleter``
   methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the property
   with the corresponding accessor function set to the decorated
   function.  This is best explained with an example:

      class C:
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          @property
          def x(self):
              """I'm the 'x' property."""
              return self._x

          @x.setter
          def x(self, value):
              self._x = value

          @x.deleter
          def x(self):
              del self._x

   This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure to
   give the additional functions the same name as the original
   property (``x`` in this case.)

   The returned property also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``,
   and ``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.

range(stop)
range(start, stop[, step])

   This is a versatile function to create iterables yielding
   arithmetic progressions.  It is most often used in ``for`` loops.
   The arguments must be integers.  If the *step* argument is omitted,
   it defaults to ``1``. If the *start* argument is omitted, it
   defaults to ``0``.  The full form returns an iterable of integers
   ``[start, start + step, start + 2 * step, ...]``.  If *step* is
   positive, the last element is the largest ``start + i * step`` less
   than *stop*; if *step* is negative, the last element is the
   smallest ``start + i * step`` greater than *stop*.  *step* must not
   be zero (or else ``ValueError`` is raised).  Example:

   >>> list(range(10))
   [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
   >>> list(range(1, 11))
   [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
   >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
   [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
   >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
   [0, 3, 6, 9]
   >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
   [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
   >>> list(range(0))
   []
   >>> list(range(1, 0))
   []

   Range objects implement the ``collections.Sequence`` ABC, and
   provide features such as containment tests, element index lookup,
   slicing and support for negative indices (see *Sequence Types ---
   str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, range*):

   >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
   >>> r
   range(0, 20, 2)
   >>> 11 in r
   False
   >>> 10 in r
   True
   >>> r.index(10)
   5
   >>> r[5]
   10
   >>> r[:5]
   range(0, 10, 2)
   >>> r[-1]
   18

   Ranges containing absolute values larger than ``sys.maxsize`` are
   permitted but some features (such as ``len()``) will raise
   ``OverflowError``.

   Changed in version 3.2: Implement the Sequence ABC. Support slicing
   and negative indices. Test integers for membership in constant time
   instead of iterating through all items.

repr(object)

   Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.
   For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string
   that would yield an object with the same value when passed to
   ``eval()``, otherwise the representation is a string enclosed in
   angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object
   together with additional information often including the name and
   address of the object.  A class can control what this function
   returns for its instances by defining a ``__repr__()`` method.

reversed(seq)

   Return a reverse *iterator*.  *seq* must be an object which has a
   ``__reversed__()`` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
   ``__len__()`` method and the ``__getitem__()`` method with integer
   arguments starting at ``0``).

round(number[, ndigits])

   Return the floating point value *number* rounded to *ndigits*
   digits after the decimal point.  If *ndigits* is omitted, it
   defaults to zero. Delegates to ``number.__round__(ndigits)``.

   For the built-in types supporting ``round()``, values are rounded
   to the closest multiple of 10 to the power minus *ndigits*; if two
   multiples are equally close, rounding is done toward the even
   choice (so, for example, both ``round(0.5)`` and ``round(-0.5)``
   are ``0``, and ``round(1.5)`` is ``2``).  The return value is an
   integer if called with one argument, otherwise of the same type as
   *number*.

   Note: The behavior of ``round()`` for floats can be surprising: for
     example, ``round(2.675, 2)`` gives ``2.67`` instead of the
     expected ``2.68``. This is not a bug: it's a result of the fact
     that most decimal fractions can't be represented exactly as a
     float.  See *Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations*
     for more information.

set([iterable])

   Return a new ``set`` object, optionally with elements taken from
   *iterable*.  ``set`` is a built-in class.  See ``set`` and *Set
   Types --- set, frozenset* for documentation about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in ``frozenset``, ``list``,
   ``tuple``, and ``dict`` classes, as well as the ``collections``
   module.

setattr(object, name, value)

   This is the counterpart of ``getattr()``.  The arguments are an
   object, a string and an arbitrary value.  The string may name an
   existing attribute or a new attribute.  The function assigns the
   value to the attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
   example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to ``x.foobar
   = 123``.

slice(stop)
slice(start, stop[, step])

   Return a *slice* object representing the set of indices specified
   by ``range(start, stop, step)``.  The *start* and *step* arguments
   default to ``None``.  Slice objects have read-only data attributes
   ``start``, ``stop`` and ``step`` which merely return the argument
   values (or their default).  They have no other explicit
   functionality; however they are used by Numerical Python and other
   third party extensions.  Slice objects are also generated when
   extended indexing syntax is used.  For example:
   ``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``.  See
   ``itertools.islice()`` for an alternate version that returns an
   iterator.

sorted(iterable[, key][, reverse])

   Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.

   Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword
   arguments.

   *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract
   a comparison key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``.  The
   default value is ``None`` (compare the elements directly).

   *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the list
   elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.

   Use ``functools.cmp_to_key()`` to convert an old-style *cmp*
   function to a *key* function.

   For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see Sorting
   HowTo.

staticmethod(function)

   Return a static method for *function*.

   A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To
   declare a static method, use this idiom:

      class C:
          @staticmethod
          def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function *decorator* -- see the
   description of function definitions in *Function definitions* for
   details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an
   instance (such as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for
   its class.

   Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++.
   Also see ``classmethod()`` for a variant that is useful for
   creating alternate class constructors.

   For more information on static methods, consult the documentation
   on the standard type hierarchy in *The standard type hierarchy*.

str(object='')
str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

   Return a *string* version of *object*.  If *object* is not
   provided, returns the empty string.  Otherwise, the behavior of
   ``str()`` depends on whether *encoding* or *errors* is given, as
   follows.

   If neither *encoding* nor *errors* is given, ``str(object)``
   returns ``object.__str__()``, which is the "informal" or nicely
   printable string representation of *object*.  For string objects,
   this is the string itself.  If *object* does not have a
   ``__str__()`` method, then ``str()`` falls back to returning
   ``repr(object)``.

   If at least one of *encoding* or *errors* is given, *object* should
   be a ``bytes`` or ``bytearray`` object, or more generally any
   object that supports the *buffer protocol*.  In this case, if
   *object* is a ``bytes`` (or ``bytearray``) object, then
   ``str(bytes, encoding, errors)`` is equivalent to
   ``bytes.decode(encoding, errors)``.  Otherwise, the bytes object
   underlying the buffer object is obtained before calling
   ``bytes.decode()``.  See the *Sequence Types --- str, bytes,
   bytearray, list, tuple, range* section, the *memoryview type*
   section, and *Buffer Protocol* for information on buffer objects.

   Passing a ``bytes`` object to ``str()`` without the *encoding* or
   *errors* arguments falls under the first case of returning the
   informal string representation (see also the *-b* command-line
   option to Python).  For example:

      >>> str(b'Zoot!')
      "b'Zoot!'"

   ``str`` is a built-in *type*.  For more information on the string
   type and its methods, see the *Sequence Types --- str, bytes,
   bytearray, list, tuple, range* and *String Methods* sections.  To
   output formatted strings, see the *String Formatting* section.  In
   addition, see the *String Services* section.

sum(iterable[, start])

   Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and
   returns the total.  *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s
   items are normally numbers, and the start value is not allowed to
   be a string.

   For some use cases, there are good alternatives to ``sum()``. The
   preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by
   calling ``''.join(sequence)``.  To add floating point values with
   extended precision, see ``math.fsum()``.  To concatenate a series
   of iterables, consider using ``itertools.chain()``.

super([type[, object-or-type]])

   Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or
   sibling class of *type*.  This is useful for accessing inherited
   methods that have been overridden in a class. The search order is
   same as that used by ``getattr()`` except that the *type* itself is
   skipped.

   The ``__mro__`` attribute of the *type* lists the method resolution
   search order used by both ``getattr()`` and ``super()``.  The
   attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance
   hierarchy is updated.

   If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is
   unbound.  If the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj,
   type)`` must be true.  If the second argument is a type,
   ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true (this is useful for
   classmethods).

   There are two typical use cases for *super*.  In a class hierarchy
   with single inheritance, *super* can be used to refer to parent
   classes without naming them explicitly, thus making the code more
   maintainable.  This use closely parallels the use of *super* in
   other programming languages.

   The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance
   in a dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to
   Python and is not found in statically compiled languages or
   languages that only support single inheritance.  This makes it
   possible to implement "diamond diagrams" where multiple base
   classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates that this
   method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
   order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
   to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can
   include sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).

   For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this:

      class C(B):
          def method(self, arg):
              super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                     # super(C, self).method(arg)

   Note that ``super()`` is implemented as part of the binding process
   for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
   ``super().__getitem__(name)``. It does so by implementing its own
   ``__getattribute__()`` method for searching classes in a
   predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
   Accordingly, ``super()`` is undefined for implicit lookups using
   statements or operators such as ``super()[name]``.

   Also note that ``super()`` is not limited to use inside methods.
   The two argument form specifies the arguments exactly and makes the
   appropriate references.  The zero argument form automatically
   searches the stack frame for the class (``__class__``) and the
   first argument.

   For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes
   using ``super()``, see guide to using super().

tuple([iterable])

   Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as
   *iterable*'s items.  *iterable* may be a sequence, a container that
   supports iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* is already
   a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For instance, ``tuple('abc')``
   returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and ``tuple([1, 2, 3])`` returns ``(1,
   2, 3)``.  If no argument is given, returns a new empty tuple,
   ``()``.

   ``tuple`` is an immutable sequence type, as documented in *Sequence
   Types --- str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, range*.

type(object)
type(name, bases, dict)

   With one argument, return the type of an *object*.  The return
   value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by
   ``object.__class__``.

   The ``isinstance()`` built-in function is recommended for testing
   the type of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.

   With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is
   essentially a dynamic form of the ``class`` statement. The *name*
   string is the class name and becomes the ``__name__`` attribute;
   the *bases* tuple itemizes the base classes and becomes the
   ``__bases__`` attribute; and the *dict* dictionary is the namespace
   containing definitions for class body and becomes the ``__dict__``
   attribute.  For example, the following two statements create
   identical ``type`` objects:

   >>> class X:
   ...     a = 1
   ...
   >>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))

vars([object])

   Without an argument, act like ``locals()``.

   With a module, class or class instance object as argument (or
   anything else that has a ``__dict__`` attribute), return that
   attribute.

   Note: The returned dictionary should not be modified: the effects on
     the corresponding symbol table are undefined. [2]

zip(*iterables)

   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
   iterables.

   Returns an iterator of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains the
   *i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables.
   The iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted.
   With a single iterable argument, it returns an iterator of
   1-tuples.  With no arguments, it returns an empty iterator.
   Equivalent to:

      def zip(*iterables):
          # zip('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax By
          sentinel = object()
          iterators = [iter(it) for it in iterables]
          while iterators:
              result = []
              for it in iterators:
                  elem = next(it, sentinel)
                  if elem is sentinel:
                      return
                  result.append(elem)
              yield tuple(result)

   The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed.
   This makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into
   n-length groups using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.

   ``zip()`` should only be used with unequal length inputs when you
   don't care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer
   iterables.  If those values are important, use
   ``itertools.zip_longest()`` instead.

   ``zip()`` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to
   unzip a list:

      >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
      >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
      >>> zipped = zip(x, y)
      >>> list(zipped)
      [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
      >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
      >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
      True

__import__(name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=[], level=-1)

   Note: This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday
     Python programming, unlike ``importlib.import_module()``.

   This function is invoked by the ``import`` statement.  It can be
   replaced (by importing the ``builtins`` module and assigning to
   ``builtins.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the
   ``import`` statement, but nowadays it is usually simpler to use
   import hooks (see **PEP 302**).  Direct use of ``__import__()`` is
   rare, except in cases where you want to import a module whose name
   is only known at runtime.

   The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given
   *globals* and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a
   package context. The *fromlist* gives the names of objects or
   submodules that should be imported from the module given by *name*.
   The standard implementation does not use its *locals* argument at
   all, and uses its *globals* only to determine the package context
   of the ``import`` statement.

   *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports.
   ``0`` means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for
   *level* indicate the number of parent directories to search
   relative to the directory of the module calling ``__import__()``.
   Negative values attempt both an implicit relative import and an
   absolute import (usage of negative values for *level* are strongly
   discouraged as future versions of Python do not support such
   values). Import statements only use values of 0 or greater.

   When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``,
   normally, the top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is
   returned, *not* the module named by *name*.  However, when a non-
   empty *fromlist* argument is given, the module named by *name* is
   returned.

   For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in bytecode
   resembling the following code:

      spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

   The statement ``import spam.ham`` results in this call:

      spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

   Note how ``__import__()`` returns the toplevel module here because
   this is the object that is bound to a name by the ``import``
   statement.

   On the other hand, the statement ``from spam.ham import eggs,
   sausage as saus`` results in

      _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
      eggs = _temp.eggs
      saus = _temp.sausage

   Here, the ``spam.ham`` module is returned from ``__import__()``.
   From this object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to
   their respective names.

   If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a
   package) by name, use ``importlib.import_module()``.

-[ Footnotes ]-

[1] Note that the parser only accepts the Unix-style end of line
    convention. If you are reading the code from a file, make sure to
    use newline conversion mode to convert Windows or Mac-style
    newlines.

[2] In the current implementation, local variable bindings cannot
    normally be affected this way, but variables retrieved from other
    scopes (such as modules) can be.  This may change.
