"urllib.parse" — Parse URLs into components
*******************************************

**Source code:** Lib/urllib/parse.py

======================================================================

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network
location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL
string, and to convert a “relative URL” to an absolute URL given a
“base URL.”

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative
Uniform Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes:
"file", "ftp", "gopher", "hdl", "http", "https", "imap", "itms-
services", "mailto", "mms", "news", "nntp", "prospero", "rsync",
"rtsp", "rtsps", "rtspu", "sftp", "shttp", "sip", "sips", "snews",
"svn", "svn+ssh", "telnet", "wais", "ws", "wss".

**CPython implementation detail:** The inclusion of the "itms-
services" URL scheme can prevent an app from passing Apple’s App Store
review process for the macOS and iOS App Stores. Handling for the
"itms-services" scheme is always removed on iOS; on macOS, it *may* be
removed if CPython has been built with the "--with-app-store-
compliance" option.

The "urllib.parse" module defines functions that fall into two broad
categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail
in the following sections.

This module’s functions use the deprecated term "netloc" (or
"net_loc"), which was introduced in **RFC 1808**. However, this term
has been obsoleted by **RFC 3986**, which introduced the term
"authority" as its replacement. The use of "netloc" is continued for
backward compatibility.


URL Parsing
===========

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its
components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

urllib.parse.urlsplit(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True, *, missing_as_none=False)

   Parse a URL into five components, returning a 5-item *named tuple*
   "SplitResult" or "SplitResultBytes". This corresponds to the
   general structure of a URL: "scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment".
   Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty, or "None" if
   *missing_as_none* is true. Not defined component are represented an
   empty string (by default) or "None" if *missing_as_none* is true.
   The delimiters as shown above are not part of the result, except
   for a leading slash in the *path* component, which is retained if
   present.

   Additionally, the netloc property is broken down into these
   additional attributes added to the returned object: username,
   password, hostname, and port.

   Percent-encoded sequences are not decoded.

   For example:

      >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
      >>> urlsplit("scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment")
      SplitResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path',
                  query='query', fragment='fragment')
      >>> o = urlsplit("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
      ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
      >>> o
      SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                  path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html',
                  query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
      >>> o.scheme
      'http'
      >>> o.netloc
      'docs.python.org:80'
      >>> o.hostname
      'docs.python.org'
      >>> o.port
      80
      >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
      'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'
      >>> urlsplit("http://docs.python.org?")
      SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org', path='',
                  query='', fragment='')
      >>> urlsplit("http://docs.python.org?", missing_as_none=True)
      SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org', path='',
                  query='', fragment=None)

   Following the syntax specifications in **RFC 1808**, "urlsplit()"
   recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by ‘//’.
   Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to
   start with a path component.

      >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
      >>> urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
      SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                  query='', fragment='')
      >>> urlsplit('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
      SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                  query='', fragment='')
      >>> urlsplit('help/Python.html')
      SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html',
                  query='', fragment='')
      >>> urlsplit('help/Python.html', missing_as_none=True)
      SplitResult(scheme=None, netloc=None, path='help/Python.html',
                  query=None, fragment=None)

   The *scheme* argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
   used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same
   type (text or bytes) as *urlstring* or "None", except that the "''"
   is always allowed, and is automatically converted to "b''" if
   appropriate.

   If the *allow_fragments* argument is false, fragment identifiers
   are not recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path
   or query component, and "fragment" is set to "None" or the empty
   string (depending on the value of *missing_as_none*) in the return
   value.

   The return value is a *named tuple*, which means that its items can
   be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | Attribute          | Index   | Value                     | Value if not present            |
   |====================|=========|===========================|=================================|
   | "scheme"           | 0       | URL scheme specifier      | *scheme* parameter or empty     |
   |                    |         |                           | string [1]                      |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "netloc"           | 1       | Network location part     | "None" or empty string [1]      |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "path"             | 2       | Hierarchical path         | empty string                    |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "query"            | 3       | Query component           | "None" or empty string [1]      |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "fragment"         | 4       | Fragment identifier       | "None" or empty string [1]      |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "username"         |         | User name                 | "None"                          |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "password"         |         | Password                  | "None"                          |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "hostname"         |         | Host name (lower case)    | "None"                          |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "port"             |         | Port number as integer,   | "None"                          |
   |                    |         | if present                |                                 |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+

   [1] Depending on the value of the *missing_as_none* argument.

   Reading the "port" attribute will raise a "ValueError" if an
   invalid port is specified in the URL.  See section Structured Parse
   Results for more information on the result object.

   Unmatched square brackets in the "netloc" attribute will raise a
   "ValueError".

   Characters in the "netloc" attribute that decompose under NFKC
   normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of "/", "?",
   "#", "@", or ":" will raise a "ValueError". If the URL is
   decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

   Following some of the WHATWG spec that updates **RFC 3986**,
   leading C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL.
   "\n", "\r" and tab "\t" characters are removed from the URL at any
   position.

   As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few
   additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful. One
   such method is "_replace()". The "_replace()" method will return a
   new "SplitResult" object replacing specified fields with new
   values.

      >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
      >>> u = urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
      >>> u
      SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                  query='', fragment='')
      >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
      SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                  query='', fragment='')

   Warning:

     "urlsplit()" does not perform validation.  See URL parsing
     security for details.

   Changed in version 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.

   Changed in version 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL
   schemes (unless *allow_fragments* is false), in accordance with
   **RFC 3986**.  Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support
   fragments existed.

   Changed in version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise
   "ValueError", instead of returning "None".

   Changed in version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under
   NFKC normalization will now raise "ValueError".

   Changed in version 3.10: ASCII newline and tab characters are
   stripped from the URL.

   Changed in version 3.12: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space
   characters are stripped from the URL.

   Changed in version 3.15: Added the *missing_as_none* parameter.

urllib.parse.parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

   Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
   *application/x-www-form-urlencoded*).  Data are returned as a
   dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable
   names and the values are lists of values for each name.

   The optional argument *keep_blank_values* is a flag indicating
   whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
   as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be
   retained as  blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
   blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
   included.

   The optional argument *strict_parsing* is a flag indicating what to
   do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
   silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a "ValueError" exception.

   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to
   decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
   accepted by the "bytes.decode()" method.

   The optional argument *max_num_fields* is the maximum number of
   fields to read. If set, then throws a "ValueError" if there are
   more than *max_num_fields* fields read.

   The optional argument *separator* is the symbol to use for
   separating the query arguments. It defaults to "&".

   Use the "urllib.parse.urlencode()" function (with the "doseq"
   parameter set to "True") to convert such dictionaries into query
   strings.

   Changed in version 3.2: Add *encoding* and *errors* parameters.

   Changed in version 3.8: Added *max_num_fields* parameter.

   Changed in version 3.10: Added *separator* parameter with the
   default value of "&". Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
   allowed using both ";" and "&" as query parameter separator. This
   has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with "&" as
   the default separator.

   Deprecated since version 3.14: Accepting objects with false values
   (like "0" and "[]") except empty strings and byte-like objects and
   "None" is now deprecated.

urllib.parse.parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

   Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
   *application/x-www-form-urlencoded*).  Data are returned as a list
   of name, value pairs.

   The optional argument *keep_blank_values* is a flag indicating
   whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
   as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be
   retained as  blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
   blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
   included.

   The optional argument *strict_parsing* is a flag indicating what to
   do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
   silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a "ValueError" exception.

   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to
   decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
   accepted by the "bytes.decode()" method.

   The optional argument *max_num_fields* is the maximum number of
   fields to read. If set, then throws a "ValueError" if there are
   more than *max_num_fields* fields read.

   The optional argument *separator* is the symbol to use for
   separating the query arguments. It defaults to "&".

   Use the "urllib.parse.urlencode()" function to convert such lists
   of pairs into query strings.

   Changed in version 3.2: Add *encoding* and *errors* parameters.

   Changed in version 3.8: Added *max_num_fields* parameter.

   Changed in version 3.10: Added *separator* parameter with the
   default value of "&". Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
   allowed using both ";" and "&" as query parameter separator. This
   has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with "&" as
   the default separator.

urllib.parse.urlunsplit(parts)
urllib.parse.urlunsplit(parts, *, keep_empty)

   Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by "urlsplit()". The
   *parts* argument can be any five-item iterable.

   This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
   URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for
   example, a "?" with an empty query; the RFC states that these are
   equivalent).

   If *keep_empty* is true, empty strings are kept in the result (for
   example, a "?" for an empty query), only "None" components are
   omitted. This allows rebuilding a URL that was parsed with option
   "missing_as_none=True". By default, *keep_empty* is true if *parts*
   is the result of the "urlsplit()" call with "missing_as_none=True".

   Changed in version 3.15: Added the *keep_empty* parameter.

urllib.parse.urlparse(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True, *, missing_as_none=False)

   This is similar to "urlsplit()", but additionally splits the *path*
   component on *path* and *params*. This function returns a 6-item
   *named tuple* "ParseResult" or "ParseResultBytes". Its items are
   the same as for the "urlsplit()" result, except that *params* is
   inserted at index 3, between *path* and *query*.

   This function is based on obsoleted **RFC 1738** and **RFC 1808**,
   which listed *params* as the main URL component. The more recent
   URL syntax allows parameters to be applied to each segment of the
   *path* portion of the URL (see **RFC 3986**). "urlsplit()" should
   generally be used instead of "urlparse()". A separate function is
   needed to separate the path segments and parameters.

urllib.parse.urlunparse(parts)
urllib.parse.urlunparse(parts, *, keep_empty)

   Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by "urlparse()" into a
   complete URL as a string. The *parts* argument can be any six-item
   iterable.

   This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
   URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for
   example, a "?" with an empty query; the RFC states that these are
   equivalent).

   If *keep_empty* is true, empty strings are kept in the result (for
   example, a "?" for an empty query), only "None" components are
   omitted. This allows rebuilding a URL that was parsed with option
   "missing_as_none=True". By default, *keep_empty* is true if *parts*
   is the result of the "urlparse()" call with "missing_as_none=True".

   Changed in version 3.15: Added the *keep_empty* parameter.

urllib.parse.urljoin(base, url, allow_fragments=True)

   Construct a full (“absolute”) URL by combining a “base URL”
   (*base*) with another URL (*url*).  Informally, this uses
   components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme,
   the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing
   components in the relative URL.  For example:

   >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
   >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
   'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

   The *allow_fragments* argument has the same meaning and default as
   for "urlsplit()".

   Note:

     If *url* is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with "//" or
     "scheme://"), the *url*’s hostname and/or scheme will be present
     in the result.  For example:

        >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
        ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
        'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

     If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the *url* with
     "urlsplit()" and "urlunsplit()", removing possible *scheme* and
     *netloc* parts.

   Warning:

     Because an absolute URL may be passed as the "url" parameter, it
     is generally **not secure** to use "urljoin" with an attacker-
     controlled "url". For example in,
     "urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)", if "username"
     can contain an absolute URL, the result of "urljoin" will be the
     absolute URL.

   Changed in version 3.5: Behavior updated to match the semantics
   defined in **RFC 3986**.

urllib.parse.urldefrag(url, *, missing_as_none=False)

   If *url* contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version
   of *url* with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier
   as a separate string.  If there is no fragment identifier in *url*,
   return *url* unmodified and an empty string (by default) or "None"
   if *missing_as_none* is true.

   The return value is a *named tuple*, its items can be accessed by
   index or as named attributes:

   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | Attribute          | Index   | Value                     | Value if not present            |
   |====================|=========|===========================|=================================|
   | "url"              | 0       | URL with no fragment      | empty string                    |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+
   | "fragment"         | 1       | Fragment identifier       | "None" or empty string [3]      |
   +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+---------------------------------+

   [3] Depending on the value of the *missing_as_none* argument.

   See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the
   result object.

   Changed in version 3.2: Result is a structured object rather than a
   simple 2-tuple.

   Changed in version 3.15: Added the *missing_as_none* parameter.

urllib.parse.unwrap(url)

   Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as
   "<URL:scheme://host/path>", "<scheme://host/path>",
   "URL:scheme://host/path" or "scheme://host/path"). If *url* is not
   a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.


URL parsing security
====================

The "urlsplit()" and "urlparse()" APIs do not perform **validation**
of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs that other
applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some inputs
that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is for
practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings or "None" (depending on
the value of the *missing_as_none* argument). Or components may
contain more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively. Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component
part.  Does that "scheme" make sense?  Is that a sensible "path"?  Is
there anything strange about that "hostname"?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For
instance the living WHATWG spec describes what user facing web clients
such as a web browser require. While **RFC 3986** is more general.
These functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be
claimed compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us
to be very cautious about making API behavior changes.


Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
===========================

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on
character strings only. In practice, it is useful to be able to
manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII
bytes. Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all
operate on "bytes" and "bytearray" objects in addition to "str"
objects.

If "str" data is passed in, the result will also contain only "str"
data. If "bytes" or "bytearray" data is passed in, the result will
contain only "bytes" data.

Attempting to mix "str" data with "bytes" or "bytearray" in a single
function call will result in a "TypeError" being raised, while
attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte values will trigger
"UnicodeDecodeError".

To support easier conversion of result objects between "str" and
"bytes", all return values from URL parsing functions provide either
an "encode()" method (when the result contains "str" data) or a
"decode()" method (when the result contains "bytes" data). The
signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding "str" and
"bytes" methods (except that the default encoding is "'ascii'" rather
than "'utf-8'"). Each produces a value of a corresponding type that
contains either "bytes" data (for "encode()" methods) or "str" data
(for "decode()" methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted
URLs that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own
decoding from bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing
methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL
parsing functions. The URL quoting functions use their own rules when
producing or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation
of the individual URL quoting functions.

Changed in version 3.2: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded
byte sequences


Structured Parse Results
========================

The result objects from the "urlsplit()", "urlparse()"  and
"urldefrag()" functions are subclasses of the "tuple" type. These
subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for those
functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the previous
section, as well as an additional method:

urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl()

   Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string.
   This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be
   normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped.
   Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers
   will be removed unless the URL was parsed with
   "missing_as_none=True".

   For "urldefrag()" results, only empty fragment identifiers will be
   removed. For "urlsplit()" and "urlparse()" results, all noted
   changes will be made to the URL returned by this method.

   The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through
   the original parsing function:

   >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
   >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
   >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
   >>> r1.geturl()
   'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
   >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
   >>> r2.geturl()
   'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
   >>> r3 = urlsplit(url, missing_as_none=True)
   >>> r3.geturl()
   'http://www.Python.org/doc/#'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured
parse results when operating on "str" objects:

class urllib.parse.DefragResult(url, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urldefrag()" results containing "str" data. The
   "encode()" method returns a "DefragResultBytes" instance.

   Added in version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.ParseResult(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urlparse()" results containing "str" data. The
   "encode()" method returns a "ParseResultBytes" instance.

class urllib.parse.SplitResult(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urlsplit()" results containing "str" data. The
   "encode()" method returns a "SplitResultBytes" instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results
when operating on "bytes" or "bytearray" objects:

class urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes(url, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urldefrag()" results containing "bytes" data.
   The "decode()" method returns a "DefragResult" instance.

   Added in version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urlparse()" results containing "bytes" data.
   The "decode()" method returns a "ParseResult" instance.

   Added in version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)

   Concrete class for "urlsplit()" results containing "bytes" data.
   The "decode()" method returns a "SplitResult" instance.

   Added in version 3.2.


URL Quoting
===========

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it
safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and
appropriately encoding non-ASCII text. They also support reversing
these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a
URL component if that task isn’t already covered by the URL parsing
functions above.

urllib.parse.quote(string, safe='/', encoding=None, errors=None)

   Replace special characters in *string* using the "%*xx*" escape.
   Letters, digits, and the characters "'_.-~'" are never quoted. By
   default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of
   a URL. The optional *safe* parameter specifies additional ASCII
   characters that should not be quoted — its default value is "'/'".

   *string* may be either a "str" or a "bytes" object.

   Changed in version 3.7: Moved from **RFC 2396** to **RFC 3986** for
   quoting URL strings. “~” is now included in the set of unreserved
   characters.

   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to deal
   with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the "str.encode()"
   method. Although these parameters default to "None" in the function
   signature, when processing "str" inputs, *encoding* effectively
   defaults to "'utf-8'" and *errors* to "'strict'", meaning
   unsupported characters raise a "UnicodeEncodeError". *encoding* and
   *errors* must not be supplied if *string* is a "bytes", or a
   "TypeError" is raised.

   Note that "quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)" is equivalent to
   "quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)".

   Example: "quote('/El Niño/')" yields "'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'".

urllib.parse.quote_plus(string, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None)

   Like "quote()", but also replace spaces with plus signs, as
   required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query
   string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are
   escaped unless they are included in *safe*.  It also does not have
   *safe* default to "'/'".

   Example: "quote_plus('/El Niño/')" yields "'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'".

urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(bytes, safe='/')

   Like "quote()", but accepts a "bytes" object rather than a "str",
   and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding.

   Example: "quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')" yields "'a%26%EF'".

urllib.parse.unquote(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')

   Replace "%*xx*" escapes with their single-character equivalent. The
   optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to decode
   percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by
   the "bytes.decode()" method.

   *string* may be either a "str" or a "bytes" object.

   *encoding* defaults to "'utf-8'". *errors* defaults to "'replace'",
   meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a placeholder character.

   Example: "unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')" yields "'/El Niño/'".

   Changed in version 3.9: *string* parameter supports bytes and str
   objects (previously only str).

urllib.parse.unquote_plus(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')

   Like "unquote()", but also replace plus signs with spaces, as
   required for unquoting HTML form values.

   *string* must be a "str".

   Example: "unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')" yields "'/El Niño/'".

urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(string)

   Replace "%*xx*" escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and
   return a "bytes" object.

   *string* may be either a "str" or a "bytes" object.

   If it is a "str", unescaped non-ASCII characters in *string* are
   encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

   Example: "unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')" yields "b'a&\xef'".

urllib.parse.urlencode(query, doseq=False, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

   Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which
   may contain "str" or "bytes" objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII
   text string.  If the resultant string is to be used as a *data* for
   POST operation with the "urlopen()" function, then it should be
   encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a "TypeError".

   The resulting string is a series of "key=value" pairs separated by
   "'&'" characters, where both *key* and *value* are quoted using the
   *quote_via* function.  By default, "quote_plus()" is used to quote
   the values, which means spaces are quoted as a "'+'" character and
   ‘/’ characters are encoded as "%2F", which follows the standard for
   GET requests ("application/x-www-form-urlencoded").  An alternate
   function that can be passed as *quote_via* is "quote()", which will
   encode spaces as "%20" and not encode ‘/’ characters.  For maximum
   control of what is quoted, use "quote" and specify a value for
   *safe*.

   When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the *query*
   argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second
   is a value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in
   that case, if the optional parameter *doseq* evaluates to "True",
   individual "key=value" pairs separated by "'&'" are generated for
   each element of the value sequence for the key.  The order of
   parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter
   tuples in the sequence.

   The *safe*, *encoding*, and *errors* parameters are passed down to
   *quote_via* (the *encoding* and *errors* parameters are only passed
   when a query element is a "str").

   To reverse this encoding process, "parse_qs()" and "parse_qsl()"
   are provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data
   structures.

   Refer to urllib examples to find out how the
   "urllib.parse.urlencode()" method can be used for generating the
   query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

   Changed in version 3.2: *query* supports bytes and string objects.

   Changed in version 3.5: Added the *quote_via* parameter.

   Deprecated since version 3.14: Accepting objects with false values
   (like "0" and "[]") except empty strings and byte-like objects and
   "None" is now deprecated.

See also:

  WHATWG -  URL Living standard
     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and
     their API.

  **RFC 3986** - Uniform Resource Identifiers
     This is the current standard (STD66). Any changes to urllib.parse
     module should conform to this. Certain deviations could be
     observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes
     and for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly
     observed in major browsers.

  **RFC 2732** - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.
     This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

  **RFC 2396** - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax
     Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both
     Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators
     (URLs).

  **RFC 2368** - The mailto URL scheme.
     Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

  **RFC 1808** - Relative Uniform Resource Locators
     This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an
     absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of “Abnormal
     Examples” which govern the treatment of border cases.

  **RFC 1738** - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)
     This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.
