"os.path" — Common pathname manipulations
*****************************************

**Source code:** Lib/genericpath.py, Lib/posixpath.py (for POSIX) and
Lib/ntpath.py (for Windows).

======================================================================

This module implements some useful functions on pathnames. To read or
write files see "open()", and for accessing the filesystem see the
"os" module. The path parameters can be passed as strings, or bytes,
or any object implementing the "os.PathLike" protocol.

Unlike a Unix shell, Python does not do any *automatic* path
expansions. Functions such as "expanduser()" and "expandvars()" can be
invoked explicitly when an application desires shell-like path
expansion.  (See also the "glob" module.)

See also: The "pathlib" module offers high-level path objects.

Note:

  All of these functions accept either only bytes or only string
  objects as their parameters.  The result is an object of the same
  type, if a path or file name is returned.

Note:

  Since different operating systems have different path name
  conventions, there are several versions of this module in the
  standard library.  The "os.path" module is always the path module
  suitable for the operating system Python is running on, and
  therefore usable for local paths.  However, you can also import and
  use the individual modules if you want to manipulate a path that is
  *always* in one of the different formats.  They all have the same
  interface:

  * "posixpath" for UNIX-style paths

  * "ntpath" for Windows paths

Changed in version 3.8: "exists()", "lexists()", "isdir()",
"isfile()", "islink()", and "ismount()" now return "False" instead of
raising an exception for paths that contain characters or bytes
unrepresentable at the OS level.

os.path.abspath(path)

   Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname *path*. On
   most platforms, this is equivalent to calling the function
   "normpath()" as follows: "normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.basename(path, /)

   Return the base name of pathname *path*.  This is the second
   element of the pair returned by passing *path* to the function
   "split()".  Note that the result of this function is different from
   the Unix **basename** program; where **basename** for "'/foo/bar/'"
   returns "'bar'", the "basename()" function returns an empty string
   ("''").

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.commonpath(paths)

   Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the iterable
   *paths*.  Raise "ValueError" if *paths* contain both absolute and
   relative pathnames, if *paths* are on different drives, or if
   *paths* is empty.  Unlike "commonprefix()", this returns a valid
   path.

   Added in version 3.5.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a sequence of *path-like objects*.

   Changed in version 3.13: Any iterable can now be passed, rather
   than just sequences.

os.path.commonprefix(list)

   Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that
   is a prefix of all paths in  *list*.  If *list* is empty, return
   the empty string ("''").

   Note:

     This function may return invalid paths because it works a
     character at a time.  To obtain a valid path, see "commonpath()".

        >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
        '/usr/l'

        >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
        '/usr'

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.dirname(path, /)

   Return the directory name of pathname *path*.  This is the first
   element of the pair returned by passing *path* to the function
   "split()".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.exists(path)

   Return "True" if *path* refers to an existing path or an open file
   descriptor.  Returns "False" for broken symbolic links.  On some
   platforms, this function may return "False" if permission is not
   granted to execute "os.stat()" on the requested file, even if the
   *path* physically exists.

   Changed in version 3.3: *path* can now be an integer: "True" is
   returned if it is an  open file descriptor, "False" otherwise.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.lexists(path)

   Return "True" if *path* refers to an existing path, including
   broken symbolic links.   Equivalent to "exists()" on platforms
   lacking "os.lstat()".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.expanduser(path)

   On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component
   of "~" or "~user" replaced by that *user*’s home directory.

   On Unix, an initial "~" is replaced by the environment variable
   "HOME" if it is set; otherwise the current user’s home directory is
   looked up in the password directory through the built-in module
   "pwd". An initial "~user" is looked up directly in the password
   directory.

   On Windows, "USERPROFILE" will be used if set, otherwise a
   combination of "HOMEPATH" and "HOMEDRIVE" will be used.  An initial
   "~user" is handled by checking that the last directory component of
   the current user’s home directory matches "USERNAME", and replacing
   it if so.

   If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde,
   the path is returned unchanged.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

   Changed in version 3.8: No longer uses "HOME" on Windows.

os.path.expandvars(path)

   Return the argument with environment variables expanded.
   Substrings of the form "$name" or "${name}" are replaced by the
   value of environment variable *name*.  Malformed variable names and
   references to non-existing variables are left unchanged.

   On Windows, "%name%" expansions are supported in addition to
   "$name" and "${name}".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.getatime(path)

   Return the time of last access of *path*.  The return value is a
   floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch
   (see the  "time" module).  Raise "OSError" if the file does not
   exist or is inaccessible.

os.path.getmtime(path)

   Return the time of last modification of *path*.  The return value
   is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the
   epoch (see the  "time" module). Raise "OSError" if the file does
   not exist or is inaccessible.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.getctime(path)

   Return the system’s ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the
   time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is
   the creation time for *path*. The return value is a number giving
   the number of seconds since the epoch (see the  "time" module).
   Raise "OSError" if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.getsize(path)

   Return the size, in bytes, of *path*.  Raise "OSError" if the file
   does not exist or is inaccessible.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.isabs(path, /)

   Return "True" if *path* is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that
   means it begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with two
   (back)slashes, or a drive letter, colon, and (back)slash together.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

   Changed in version 3.13: On Windows, returns "False" if the given
   path starts with exactly one (back)slash.

os.path.isfile(path)

   Return "True" if *path* is an "existing" regular file. This follows
   symbolic links, so both "islink()" and "isfile()" can be true for
   the same path.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.isdir(path, /)

   Return "True" if *path* is an "existing" directory.  This follows
   symbolic links, so both "islink()" and "isdir()" can be true for
   the same path.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.isjunction(path)

   Return "True" if *path* refers to an "existing" directory entry
   that is a junction.  Always return "False" if junctions are not
   supported on the current platform.

   Added in version 3.12.

os.path.islink(path)

   Return "True" if *path* refers to an "existing" directory entry
   that is a symbolic link.  Always "False" if symbolic links are not
   supported by the Python runtime.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.ismount(path)

   Return "True" if pathname *path* is a *mount point*: a point in a
   file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On
   POSIX, the function checks whether *path*’s parent, "*path*/..", is
   on a different device than *path*, or whether "*path*/.." and
   *path* point to the same i-node on the same device — this should
   detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  It is not
   able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem. On
   Linux systems, it will always return "True" for btrfs subvolumes,
   even if they aren’t mount points. On Windows, a drive letter root
   and a share UNC are always mount points, and for any other path
   "GetVolumePathName" is called to see if it is different from the
   input path.

   Changed in version 3.4: Added support for detecting non-root mount
   points on Windows.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.isdevdrive(path)

   Return "True" if pathname *path* is located on a Windows Dev Drive.
   A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster
   performance for reading and writing files. It is recommended for
   use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches,
   and other IO-intensive operations.

   May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a
   recognizable drive, but returns "False" on platforms that do not
   support Dev Drives. See the Windows documentation for information
   on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

   Added in version 3.12.

   Changed in version 3.13: The function is now available on all
   platforms, and will always return "False" on those that have no
   support for Dev Drives

os.path.isreserved(path)

   Return "True" if *path* is a reserved pathname on the current
   system.

   On Windows, reserved filenames include those that end with a space
   or dot; those that contain colons (i.e. file streams such as
   “name:stream”), wildcard characters (i.e. "'*?"<>'"), pipe, or
   ASCII control characters; as well as DOS device names such as
   “NUL”, “CON”, “CONIN$”, “CONOUT$”, “AUX”, “PRN”, “COM1”, and
   “LPT1”.

   Note:

     This function approximates rules for reserved paths on most
     Windows systems. These rules change over time in various Windows
     releases. This function may be updated in future Python releases
     as changes to the rules become broadly available.

   Availability: Windows.

   Added in version 3.13.

os.path.join(path, *paths)

   Join one or more path segments intelligently.  The return value is
   the concatenation of *path* and all members of **paths*, with
   exactly one directory separator following each non-empty part,
   except the last. That is, the result will only end in a separator
   if the last part is either empty or ends in a separator. If a
   segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a drive
   and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and joining
   continues from the absolute path segment.

   On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment
   (e.g., "r'\foo'") is encountered. If a segment is on a different
   drive or is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and
   the drive is reset. Note that since there is a current directory
   for each drive, "os.path.join("c:", "foo")" represents a path
   relative to the current directory on drive "C:" ("c:foo"), not
   "c:\foo".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object* for *path* and
   *paths*.

os.path.normcase(path, /)

   Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all
   characters in the pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward
   slashes to backward slashes. On other operating systems, return the
   path unchanged.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.normpath(path)

   Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and up-
   level references so that "A//B", "A/B/", "A/./B" and "A/foo/../B"
   all become "A/B".  This string manipulation may change the meaning
   of a path that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it converts
   forward slashes to backward slashes. To normalize case, use
   "normcase()".

   Note:

     On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1 2013
     Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution, if a pathname begins with
     exactly two slashes, the first component following the leading
     characters may be interpreted in an implementation-defined
     manner, although more than two leading characters shall be
     treated as a single character.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.realpath(path, *, strict=False)

   Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating
   any symbolic links encountered in the path (if they are supported
   by the operating system). On Windows, this function will also
   resolve MS-DOS (also called 8.3) style names such as "C:\\PROGRA~1"
   to "C:\\Program Files".

   By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that
   does not exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises
   "OSError". All such components are appended unchanged to the
   existing part of the path.

   Some errors that are handled this way include “access denied”, “not
   a directory”, or “bad argument to internal function”. Thus, the
   resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain
   links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.

   This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:

   If *strict* is "True", the first error encountered when evaluating
   the path is re-raised. In particular, "FileNotFoundError" is raised
   if *path* does not exist, or another "OSError" if it is otherwise
   inaccessible.

   If *strict* is "os.path.ALLOW_MISSING", errors other than
   "FileNotFoundError" are re-raised (as with "strict=True"). Thus,
   the returned path will not contain any symbolic links, but the
   named file and some of its parent directories may be missing.

   Note:

     This function emulates the operating system’s procedure for
     making a path canonical, which differs slightly between Windows
     and UNIX with respect to how links and subsequent path components
     interact.Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so
     it’s not normally necessary to call this function.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

   Changed in version 3.8: Symbolic links and junctions are now
   resolved on Windows.

   Changed in version 3.10: The *strict* parameter was added.

   Changed in version 3.14: The "ALLOW_MISSING" value for the *strict*
   parameter was added.

os.path.ALLOW_MISSING

   Special value used for the *strict* argument in "realpath()".

   Added in version 3.14.

os.path.relpath(path, start=os.curdir)

   Return a relative filepath to *path* either from the current
   directory or from an optional *start* directory.  This is a path
   computation:  the filesystem is not accessed to confirm the
   existence or nature of *path* or *start*.  On Windows, "ValueError"
   is raised when *path* and *start* are on different drives.

   *start* defaults to "os.curdir".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.samefile(path1, path2)

   Return "True" if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or
   directory. This is determined by the device number and i-node
   number and raises an exception if an "os.stat()" call on either
   pathname fails.

   Changed in version 3.2: Added Windows support.

   Changed in version 3.4: Windows now uses the same implementation as
   all other platforms.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.sameopenfile(fp1, fp2)

   Return "True" if the file descriptors *fp1* and *fp2* refer to the
   same file.

   Changed in version 3.2: Added Windows support.

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.samestat(stat1, stat2)

   Return "True" if the stat tuples *stat1* and *stat2* refer to the
   same file. These structures may have been returned by "os.fstat()",
   "os.lstat()", or "os.stat()".  This function implements the
   underlying comparison used by "samefile()" and "sameopenfile()".

   Changed in version 3.4: Added Windows support.

os.path.split(path, /)

   Split the pathname *path* into a pair, "(head, tail)" where *tail*
   is the last pathname component and *head* is everything leading up
   to that.  The *tail* part will never contain a slash; if *path*
   ends in a slash, *tail* will be empty.  If there is no slash in
   *path*, *head* will be empty.  If *path* is empty, both *head* and
   *tail* are empty.  Trailing slashes are stripped from *head* unless
   it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In all cases,
   "join(head, tail)" returns a path to the same location as *path*
   (but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions "dirname()"
   and "basename()".

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.splitdrive(path, /)

   Split the pathname *path* into a pair "(drive, tail)" where *drive*
   is either a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do
   not use drive specifications, *drive* will always be the empty
   string.  In all cases, "drive + tail" will be the same as *path*.

   On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and
   relative path.

   If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
   up to and including the colon:

      >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
      ("c:", "/dir")

   If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
   and share:

      >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
      ("//host/computer", "/dir")

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.splitroot(path, /)

   Split the pathname *path* into a 3-item tuple "(drive, root, tail)"
   where *drive* is a device name or mount point, *root* is a string
   of separators after the drive, and *tail* is everything after the
   root. Any of these items may be the empty string. In all cases,
   "drive + root + tail" will be the same as *path*.

   On POSIX systems, *drive* is always empty. The *root* may be empty
   (if *path* is relative), a single forward slash (if *path* is
   absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE
   Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution.) For example:

      >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
      ('', '/', 'home/sam')
      >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
      ('', '//', 'home/sam')
      >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
      ('', '/', '//home/sam')

   On Windows, *drive* may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share,
   or a device name. The *root* may be empty, a forward slash, or a
   backward slash. For example:

      >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
      ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
      >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
      ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

   Added in version 3.12.

os.path.splitext(path, /)

   Split the pathname *path* into a pair "(root, ext)"  such that
   "root + ext == path", and the extension, *ext*, is empty or begins
   with a period and contains at most one period.

   If the path contains no extension, *ext* will be "''":

      >>> splitext('bar')
      ('bar', '')

   If the path contains an extension, then *ext* will be set to this
   extension, including the leading period. Note that previous periods
   will be ignored:

      >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
      ('foo.bar', '.exe')
      >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
      ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

   Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to
   be part of the root:

      >>> splitext('.cshrc')
      ('.cshrc', '')
      >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
      ('/foo/....jpg', '')

   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *path-like object*.

os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

   "True" if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names
   (within limitations imposed by the file system).
