"inspect" — Inspect live objects
********************************

**Source code:** Lib/inspect.py

======================================================================

The "inspect" module provides several useful functions to help get
information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods,
functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example,
it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source
code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function,
or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type
checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and
examining the interpreter stack.


Types and members
=================

The "getmembers()" function retrieves the members of an object such as
a class or module. The functions whose names begin with “is” are
mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to
"getmembers()". They also help you determine when you can expect to
find the following special attributes (see Import-related module
attributes for module attributes):

+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| Type        | Attribute           | Description                 |
|=============|=====================|=============================|
| class       | __doc__             | documentation string        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __name__            | name with which this class  |
|             |                     | was defined                 |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __module__          | name of module in which     |
|             |                     | this class was defined      |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __type_params__     | A tuple containing the type |
|             |                     | parameters of a generic     |
|             |                     | class                       |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| method      | __doc__             | documentation string        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __name__            | name with which this method |
|             |                     | was defined                 |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __func__            | function object containing  |
|             |                     | implementation of method    |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __self__            | instance to which this      |
|             |                     | method is bound, or "None"  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __module__          | name of module in which     |
|             |                     | this method was defined     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| function    | __doc__             | documentation string        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __name__            | name with which this        |
|             |                     | function was defined        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __code__            | code object containing      |
|             |                     | compiled function           |
|             |                     | *bytecode*                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __defaults__        | tuple of any default values |
|             |                     | for positional or keyword   |
|             |                     | parameters                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __kwdefaults__      | mapping of any default      |
|             |                     | values for keyword-only     |
|             |                     | parameters                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __globals__         | global namespace in which   |
|             |                     | this function was defined   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __builtins__        | builtins namespace          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __annotations__     | mapping of parameters names |
|             |                     | to annotations; ""return""  |
|             |                     | key is reserved for return  |
|             |                     | annotations.                |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __type_params__     | A tuple containing the type |
|             |                     | parameters of a generic     |
|             |                     | function                    |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __module__          | name of module in which     |
|             |                     | this function was defined   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| traceback   | tb_frame            | frame object at this level  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | tb_lasti            | index of last attempted     |
|             |                     | instruction in bytecode     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | tb_lineno           | current line number in      |
|             |                     | Python source code          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | tb_next             | next inner traceback object |
|             |                     | (called by this level)      |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| frame       | f_back              | next outer frame object     |
|             |                     | (this frame’s caller)       |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_builtins          | builtins namespace seen by  |
|             |                     | this frame                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_code              | code object being executed  |
|             |                     | in this frame               |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_globals           | global namespace seen by    |
|             |                     | this frame                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_lasti             | index of last attempted     |
|             |                     | instruction in bytecode     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_lineno            | current line number in      |
|             |                     | Python source code          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_locals            | local namespace seen by     |
|             |                     | this frame                  |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | f_trace             | tracing function for this   |
|             |                     | frame, or "None"            |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| code        | co_argcount         | number of arguments (not    |
|             |                     | including keyword only      |
|             |                     | arguments, * or ** args)    |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_code             | string of raw compiled      |
|             |                     | bytecode                    |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_cellvars         | tuple of names of cell      |
|             |                     | variables (referenced by    |
|             |                     | containing scopes)          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_consts           | tuple of constants used in  |
|             |                     | the bytecode                |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_filename         | name of file in which this  |
|             |                     | code object was created     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_firstlineno      | number of first line in     |
|             |                     | Python source code          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_flags            | bitmap of "CO_*" flags,     |
|             |                     | read more here              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_lnotab           | encoded mapping of line     |
|             |                     | numbers to bytecode indices |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_freevars         | tuple of names of free      |
|             |                     | variables (referenced via a |
|             |                     | function’s closure)         |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_posonlyargcount  | number of positional only   |
|             |                     | arguments                   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_kwonlyargcount   | number of keyword only      |
|             |                     | arguments (not including ** |
|             |                     | arg)                        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_name             | name with which this code   |
|             |                     | object was defined          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_qualname         | fully qualified name with   |
|             |                     | which this code object was  |
|             |                     | defined                     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_names            | tuple of names other than   |
|             |                     | arguments and function      |
|             |                     | locals                      |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_nlocals          | number of local variables   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_stacksize        | virtual machine stack space |
|             |                     | required                    |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | co_varnames         | tuple of names of arguments |
|             |                     | and local variables         |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| generator   | __name__            | name                        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | gi_frame            | frame                       |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | gi_running          | is the generator running?   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | gi_code             | code                        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | gi_yieldfrom        | object being iterated by    |
|             |                     | "yield from", or "None"     |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| coroutine   | __name__            | name                        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | cr_await            | object being awaited on, or |
|             |                     | "None"                      |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | cr_frame            | frame                       |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | cr_running          | is the coroutine running?   |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | cr_code             | code                        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | cr_origin           | where coroutine was         |
|             |                     | created, or "None". See "s  |
|             |                     | ys.set_coroutine_origin_tr  |
|             |                     | acking_depth()"             |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
| builtin     | __doc__             | documentation string        |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __name__            | original name of this       |
|             |                     | function or method          |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __qualname__        | qualified name              |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+
|             | __self__            | instance to which a method  |
|             |                     | is bound, or "None"         |
+-------------+---------------------+-----------------------------+

Changed in version 3.5: Add "__qualname__" and "gi_yieldfrom"
attributes to generators.The "__name__" attribute of generators is now
set from the function name, instead of the code name, and it can now
be modified.

Changed in version 3.7: Add "cr_origin" attribute to coroutines.

Changed in version 3.10: Add "__builtins__" attribute to functions.

inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])

   Return all the members of an object in a list of "(name, value)"
   pairs sorted by name. If the optional *predicate* argument—which
   will be called with the "value" object of each member—is supplied,
   only members for which the predicate returns a true value are
   included.

   Note:

     "getmembers()" will only return class attributes defined in the
     metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have
     been listed in the metaclass’ custom "__dir__()".

inspect.getmembers_static(object[, predicate])

   Return all the members of an object in a list of "(name, value)"
   pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
   descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__. Optionally,
   only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

   Note:

     "getmembers_static()" may not be able to retrieve all members
     that getmembers can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
     and may find members that getmembers can’t (like descriptors that
     raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptor objects
     instead of instance members in some cases.

   New in version 3.11.

inspect.getmodulename(path)

   Return the name of the module named by the file *path*, without
   including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is
   checked against all of the entries in
   "importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()". If it matches, the final path
   component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, "None"
   is returned.

   Note that this function *only* returns a meaningful name for actual
   Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages
   will still return "None".

   Changed in version 3.3: The function is based directly on
   "importlib".

inspect.ismodule(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a module.

inspect.isclass(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a class, whether built-in or created
   in Python code.

inspect.ismethod(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a bound method written in Python.

inspect.isfunction(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a Python function, which includes
   functions created by a *lambda* expression.

inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a Python generator function.

   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in "functools.partial()"
   now return "True" if the wrapped function is a Python generator
   function.

inspect.isgenerator(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a generator.

inspect.iscoroutinefunction(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a *coroutine function* (a function
   defined with an "async def" syntax), a "functools.partial()"
   wrapping a *coroutine function*, or a sync function marked with
   "markcoroutinefunction()".

   New in version 3.5.

   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in "functools.partial()"
   now return "True" if the wrapped function is a *coroutine
   function*.

   Changed in version 3.12: Sync functions marked with
   "markcoroutinefunction()" now return "True".

inspect.markcoroutinefunction(func)

   Decorator to mark a callable as a *coroutine function* if it would
   not otherwise be detected by "iscoroutinefunction()".

   This may be of use for sync functions that return a *coroutine*, if
   the function is passed to an API that requires
   "iscoroutinefunction()".

   When possible, using an "async def" function is preferred. Also
   acceptable is calling the function and testing the return with
   "iscoroutine()".

   New in version 3.12.

inspect.iscoroutine(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a *coroutine* created by an "async
   def" function.

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.isawaitable(object)

   Return "True" if the object can be used in "await" expression.

   Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from
   regular generators:

      import types

      def gen():
          yield
      @types.coroutine
      def gen_coro():
          yield

      assert not isawaitable(gen())
      assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.isasyncgenfunction(object)

   Return "True" if the object is an *asynchronous generator*
   function, for example:

      >>> async def agen():
      ...     yield 1
      ...
      >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
      True

   New in version 3.6.

   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in "functools.partial()"
   now return "True" if the wrapped function is a *asynchronous
   generator* function.

inspect.isasyncgen(object)

   Return "True" if the object is an *asynchronous generator iterator*
   created by an *asynchronous generator* function.

   New in version 3.6.

inspect.istraceback(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a traceback.

inspect.isframe(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a frame.

inspect.iscode(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a code.

inspect.isbuiltin(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a built-in function or a bound
   built-in method.

inspect.ismethodwrapper(object)

   Return "True" if the type of object is a "MethodWrapperType".

   These are instances of "MethodWrapperType", such as "__str__()",
   "__eq__()" and "__repr__()".

   New in version 3.11.

inspect.isroutine(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a user-defined or built-in function
   or method.

inspect.isabstract(object)

   Return "True" if the object is an abstract base class.

inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
   "ismethod()", "isclass()", "isfunction()" or "isbuiltin()" are
   true.

   This, for example, is true of "int.__add__".  An object passing
   this test has a "__get__()" method but not a "__set__()" method,
   but beyond that the set of attributes varies.  A "__name__"
   attribute is usually sensible, and "__doc__" often is.

   Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other
   tests return "False" from the "ismethoddescriptor()" test, simply
   because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on
   having the "__func__" attribute (etc) when an object passes
   "ismethod()".

inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a data descriptor.

   Data descriptors have a "__set__" or a "__delete__" method.
   Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members.
   The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests
   available for those types, which is robust across Python
   implementations.  Typically, data descriptors will also have
   "__name__" and "__doc__" attributes (properties, getsets, and
   members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed.

inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a getset descriptor.

   **CPython implementation detail:** getsets are attributes defined
   in extension modules via "PyGetSetDef" structures.  For Python
   implementations without such types, this method will always return
   "False".

inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)

   Return "True" if the object is a member descriptor.

   **CPython implementation detail:** Member descriptors are
   attributes defined in extension modules via "PyMemberDef"
   structures.  For Python implementations without such types, this
   method will always return "False".


Retrieving source code
======================

inspect.getdoc(object)

   Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with
   "cleandoc()". If the documentation string for an object is not
   provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a
   descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance
   hierarchy. Return "None" if the documentation string is invalid or
   missing.

   Changed in version 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if
   not overridden.

inspect.getcomments(object)

   Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately
   preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or
   method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is
   a module).  If the object’s source code is unavailable, return
   "None".  This could happen if the object has been defined in C or
   the interactive shell.

inspect.getfile(object)

   Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was
   defined. This will fail with a "TypeError" if the object is a
   built-in module, class, or function.

inspect.getmodule(object)

   Try to guess which module an object was defined in. Return "None"
   if the module cannot be determined.

inspect.getsourcefile(object)

   Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was
   defined or "None" if no way can be identified to get the source.
   This will fail with a "TypeError" if the object is a built-in
   module, class, or function.

inspect.getsourcelines(object)

   Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an
   object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function,
   traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is returned as a
   list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number
   indicates where in the original source file the first line of code
   was found.  An "OSError" is raised if the source code cannot be
   retrieved. A "TypeError" is raised if the object is a built-in
   module, class, or function.

   Changed in version 3.3: "OSError" is raised instead of "IOError",
   now an alias of the former.

inspect.getsource(object)

   Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may
   be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
   object.  The source code is returned as a single string.  An
   "OSError" is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. A
   "TypeError" is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or
   function.

   Changed in version 3.3: "OSError" is raised instead of "IOError",
   now an alias of the former.

inspect.cleandoc(doc)

   Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up
   with blocks of code.

   All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading
   whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line
   onwards is removed.  Empty lines at the beginning and end are
   subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.


Introspecting callables with the Signature object
=================================================

New in version 3.3.

The "Signature" object represents the call signature of a callable
object and its return annotation. To retrieve a "Signature" object,
use the "signature()" function.

inspect.signature(callable, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

   Return a "Signature" object for the given *callable*:

      >>> from inspect import signature
      >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
      ...     pass

      >>> sig = signature(foo)

      >>> str(sig)
      '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

      >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
      'b: int'

      >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
      <class 'int'>

   Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and
   classes to "functools.partial()" objects.

   For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations ("from
   __future__ import annotations"), "signature()" will attempt to
   automatically un-stringize the annotations using
   "get_annotations()".  The *globals*, *locals*, and *eval_str*
   parameters are passed into "get_annotations()" when resolving the
   annotations; see the documentation for "get_annotations()" for
   instructions on how to use these parameters.

   Raises "ValueError" if no signature can be provided, and
   "TypeError" if that type of object is not supported.  Also, if the
   annotations are stringized, and *eval_str* is not false, the
   "eval()" call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
   "get_annotations()" could potentially raise any kind of exception.

   A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the
   parameters prior to it are positional-only. For more info, see the
   FAQ entry on positional-only parameters.

   Changed in version 3.5: The *follow_wrapped* parameter was added.
   Pass "False" to get a signature of *callable* specifically
   ("callable.__wrapped__" will not be used to unwrap decorated
   callables.)

   Changed in version 3.10: The *globals*, *locals*, and *eval_str*
   parameters were added.

   Note:

     Some callables may not be introspectable in certain
     implementations of Python.  For example, in CPython, some built-
     in functions defined in C provide no metadata about their
     arguments.

   **CPython implementation detail:** If the passed object has a
   "__signature__" attribute, we may use it to create the signature.
   The exact semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to
   unannounced changes. Consult the source code for current semantics.

class inspect.Signature(parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty)

   A "Signature" object represents the call signature of a function
   and its return annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the
   function it stores a "Parameter" object in its "parameters"
   collection.

   The optional *parameters* argument is a sequence of "Parameter"
   objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters
   with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right
   order, i.e. positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and
   that parameters with defaults follow parameters without defaults.

   The optional *return_annotation* argument can be an arbitrary
   Python object. It represents the “return” annotation of the
   callable.

   "Signature" objects are *immutable*.  Use "Signature.replace()" to
   make a modified copy.

   Changed in version 3.5: "Signature" objects are now picklable and
   *hashable*.

   empty

      A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return
      annotation.

   parameters

      An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding
      "Parameter" objects.  Parameters appear in strict definition
      order, including keyword-only parameters.

      Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that
      it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as
      of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been
      preserved in Python 3.

   return_annotation

      The “return” annotation for the callable.  If the callable has
      no “return” annotation, this attribute is set to
      "Signature.empty".

   bind(*args, **kwargs)

      Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to
      parameters. Returns "BoundArguments" if "*args" and "**kwargs"
      match the signature, or raises a "TypeError".

   bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)

      Works the same way as "Signature.bind()", but allows the
      omission of some required arguments (mimics
      "functools.partial()" behavior.) Returns "BoundArguments", or
      raises a "TypeError" if the passed arguments do not match the
      signature.

   replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

      Create a new "Signature" instance based on the instance
      "replace()" was invoked on. It is possible to pass different
      *parameters* and/or *return_annotation* to override the
      corresponding properties of the base signature.  To remove
      "return_annotation" from the copied "Signature", pass in
      "Signature.empty".

         >>> def test(a, b):
         ...     pass
         ...
         >>> sig = signature(test)
         >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
         >>> str(new_sig)
         "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

   classmethod from_callable(obj, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

      Return a "Signature" (or its subclass) object for a given
      callable *obj*.

      This method simplifies subclassing of "Signature":

         class MySignature(Signature):
             pass
         sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
         assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

      Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of "signature()".

      New in version 3.5.

      Changed in version 3.10: The *globals*, *locals*, and *eval_str*
      parameters were added.

class inspect.Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)

   "Parameter" objects are *immutable*. Instead of modifying a
   "Parameter" object, you can use "Parameter.replace()" to create a
   modified copy.

   Changed in version 3.5: Parameter objects are now picklable and
   *hashable*.

   empty

      A special class-level marker to specify absence of default
      values and annotations.

   name

      The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a valid
      Python identifier.

      **CPython implementation detail:** CPython generates implicit
      parameter names of the form ".0" on the code objects used to
      implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

      Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are now exposed by
      this module as names like "implicit0".

   default

      The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
      default value, this attribute is set to "Parameter.empty".

   annotation

      The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
      annotation, this attribute is set to "Parameter.empty".

   kind

      Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  The
      possible values are accessible via "Parameter" (like
      "Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY"), and support comparison and ordering,
      in the following order:

      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
      | Name                     | Meaning                                        |
      |==========================|================================================|
      | *POSITIONAL_ONLY*        | Value must be supplied as a positional         |
      |                          | argument. Positional only parameters are those |
      |                          | which appear before a "/" entry (if present)   |
      |                          | in a Python function definition.               |
      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
      | *POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD*  | Value may be supplied as either a keyword or   |
      |                          | positional argument (this is the standard      |
      |                          | binding behaviour for functions implemented in |
      |                          | Python.)                                       |
      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
      | *VAR_POSITIONAL*         | A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t    |
      |                          | bound to any other parameter. This corresponds |
      |                          | to a "*args" parameter in a Python function    |
      |                          | definition.                                    |
      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
      | *KEYWORD_ONLY*           | Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.  |
      |                          | Keyword only parameters are those which appear |
      |                          | after a "*" or "*args" entry in a Python       |
      |                          | function definition.                           |
      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
      | *VAR_KEYWORD*            | A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound  |
      |                          | to any other parameter. This corresponds to a  |
      |                          | "**kwargs" parameter in a Python function      |
      |                          | definition.                                    |
      +--------------------------+------------------------------------------------+

      Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default
      values:

         >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
         ...     pass

         >>> sig = signature(foo)
         >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
         ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
         ...                        param.default is param.empty):
         ...         print('Parameter:', param)
         Parameter: c

   kind.description

      Describes a enum value of "Parameter.kind".

      New in version 3.8.

      Example: print all descriptions of arguments:

         >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
         ...     pass

         >>> sig = signature(foo)
         >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
         ...     print(param.kind.description)
         positional or keyword
         positional or keyword
         keyword-only
         keyword-only

   replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

      Create a new "Parameter" instance based on the instance replaced
      was invoked on.  To override a "Parameter" attribute, pass the
      corresponding argument.  To remove a default value or/and an
      annotation from a "Parameter", pass "Parameter.empty".

         >>> from inspect import Parameter
         >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
         >>> str(param)
         'foo=42'

         >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
         'foo=42'

         >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
         "foo: 'spam'"

   Changed in version 3.4: In Python 3.3 "Parameter" objects were
   allowed to have "name" set to "None" if their "kind" was set to
   "POSITIONAL_ONLY". This is no longer permitted.

class inspect.BoundArguments

   Result of a "Signature.bind()" or "Signature.bind_partial()" call.
   Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.

   arguments

      A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values.
      Contains only explicitly bound arguments.  Changes in
      "arguments" will reflect in "args" and "kwargs".

      Should be used in conjunction with "Signature.parameters" for
      any argument processing purposes.

      Note:

        Arguments for which "Signature.bind()" or
        "Signature.bind_partial()" relied on a default value are
        skipped. However, if needed, use
        "BoundArguments.apply_defaults()" to add them.

      Changed in version 3.9: "arguments" is now of type "dict".
      Formerly, it was of type "collections.OrderedDict".

   args

      A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed
      from the "arguments" attribute.

   kwargs

      A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from
      the "arguments" attribute.

   signature

      A reference to the parent "Signature" object.

   apply_defaults()

      Set default values for missing arguments.

      For variable-positional arguments ("*args") the default is an
      empty tuple.

      For variable-keyword arguments ("**kwargs") the default is an
      empty dict.

         >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
         >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
         >>> ba.apply_defaults()
         >>> ba.arguments
         {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

      New in version 3.5.

   The "args" and "kwargs" properties can be used to invoke functions:

      def test(a, *, b):
          ...

      sig = signature(test)
      ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
      test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

See also:

  **PEP 362** - Function Signature Object.
     The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.


Classes and functions
=====================

inspect.getclasstree(classes, unique=False)

   Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists.
   Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the
   class whose entry immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a
   2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes.  If the
   *unique* argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the
   returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
   classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will
   appear multiple times.

inspect.getfullargspec(func)

   Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters.
   A *named tuple* is returned:

   "FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
   kwonlydefaults, annotations)"

   *args* is a list of the positional parameter names. *varargs* is
   the name of the "*" parameter or "None" if arbitrary positional
   arguments are not accepted. *varkw* is the name of the "**"
   parameter or "None" if arbitrary keyword arguments are not
   accepted. *defaults* is an *n*-tuple of default argument values
   corresponding to the last *n* positional parameters, or "None" if
   there are no such defaults defined. *kwonlyargs* is a list of
   keyword-only parameter names in declaration order. *kwonlydefaults*
   is a dictionary mapping parameter names from *kwonlyargs* to the
   default values used if no argument is supplied. *annotations* is a
   dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations. The special key
   ""return"" is used to report the function return value annotation
   (if any).

   Note that "signature()" and Signature Object provide the
   recommended API for callable introspection, and support additional
   behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are sometimes
   encountered in extension module APIs. This function is retained
   primarily for use in code that needs to maintain compatibility with
   the Python 2 "inspect" module API.

   Changed in version 3.4: This function is now based on
   "signature()", but still ignores "__wrapped__" attributes and
   includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output
   for bound methods.

   Changed in version 3.6: This method was previously documented as
   deprecated in favour of "signature()" in Python 3.5, but that
   decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported
   standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away
   from the legacy "getargspec()" API.

   Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it
   preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of
   version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been
   preserved in Python 3.

inspect.getargvalues(frame)

   Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
   *named tuple* "ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)" is
   returned. *args* is a list of the argument names.  *varargs* and
   *keywords* are the names of the "*" and "**" arguments or "None".
   *locals* is the locals dictionary of the given frame.

   Note:

     This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python
     3.5.

inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

   Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
   "getargvalues()".  The format* arguments are the corresponding
   optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and
   values into strings.

   Note:

     This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python
     3.5.

inspect.getmro(cls)

   Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in
   method resolution order.  No class appears more than once in this
   tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s type.
   Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be
   the first element of the tuple.

inspect.getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)

   Bind the *args* and *kwds* to the argument names of the Python
   function or method *func*, as if it was called with them. For bound
   methods, bind also the first argument (typically named "self") to
   the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument
   names (including the names of the "*" and "**" arguments, if any)
   to their values from *args* and *kwds*. In case of invoking *func*
   incorrectly, i.e. whenever "func(*args, **kwds)" would raise an
   exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the
   same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example:

      >>> from inspect import getcallargs
      >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
      ...     pass
      ...
      >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
      True
      >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
      True
      >>> getcallargs(f)
      Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
      TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

   New in version 3.2.

   Deprecated since version 3.5: Use "Signature.bind()" and
   "Signature.bind_partial()" instead.

inspect.getclosurevars(func)

   Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
   method *func* to their current values. A *named tuple*
   "ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)" is returned.
   *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure variables,
   *globals* to the function’s module globals and *builtins* to the
   builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of
   names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all
   given the current module globals and builtins.

   "TypeError" is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method.

   New in version 3.3.

inspect.unwrap(func, *, stop=None)

   Get the object wrapped by *func*. It follows the chain of
   "__wrapped__" attributes returning the last object in the chain.

   *stop* is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper
   chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be
   terminated early if the callback returns a true value. If the
   callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain
   is returned as usual. For example, "signature()" uses this to stop
   unwrapping if any object in the chain has a "__signature__"
   attribute defined.

   "ValueError" is raised if a cycle is encountered.

   New in version 3.4.

inspect.get_annotations(obj, *, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

   Compute the annotations dict for an object.

   "obj" may be a callable, class, or module. Passing in an object of
   any other type raises "TypeError".

   Returns a dict.  "get_annotations()" returns a new dict every time
   it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
   different but equivalent dicts.

   This function handles several details for you:

   * If "eval_str" is true, values of type "str" will be un-stringized
     using "eval()".  This is intended for use with stringized
     annotations ("from __future__ import annotations").

   * If "obj" doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an empty dict.
     (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict; classes,
     modules, and other types of callables may not.)

   * Ignores inherited annotations on classes.  If a class doesn’t
     have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

   * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
     "getattr()" and "dict.get()" for safety.

   * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.

   "eval_str" controls whether or not values of type "str" are
   replaced with the result of calling "eval()" on those values:

   * If eval_str is true, "eval()" is called on values of type "str".
     (Note that "get_annotations" doesn’t catch exceptions; if
     "eval()" raises an exception, it will unwind the stack past the
     "get_annotations" call.)

   * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type "str" are
     unchanged.

   "globals" and "locals" are passed in to "eval()"; see the
   documentation for "eval()" for more information.  If "globals" or
   "locals" is "None", this function may replace that value with a
   context-specific default, contingent on "type(obj)":

   * If "obj" is a module, "globals" defaults to "obj.__dict__".

   * If "obj" is a class, "globals" defaults to
     "sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__" and "locals" defaults to
     the "obj" class namespace.

   * If "obj" is a callable, "globals" defaults to "obj.__globals__",
     although if "obj" is a wrapped function (using
     "functools.update_wrapper()") it is first unwrapped.

   Calling "get_annotations" is best practice for accessing the
   annotations dict of any object.  See Annotations Best Practices for
   more information on annotations best practices.

   New in version 3.10.


The interpreter stack
=====================

Some of the following functions return "FrameInfo" objects. For
backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except "positions". This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

class inspect.FrameInfo

   frame

      The frame object that the record corresponds to.

   filename

      The file name associated with the code being executed by the
      frame this record corresponds to.

   lineno

      The line number of the current line associated with the code
      being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

   function

      The function name that is being executed by the frame this
      record corresponds to.

   code_context

      A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
      executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

   index

      The index of the current line being executed in the
      "code_context" list.

   positions

      A "dis.Positions" object containing the start line number, end
      line number, start column offset, and end column offset
      associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this
      record corresponds to.

   Changed in version 3.5: Return a *named tuple* instead of a
   "tuple".

   Changed in version 3.11: "FrameInfo" is now a class instance (that
   is backwards compatible with the previous *named tuple*).

class inspect.Traceback

   filename

      The file name associated with the code being executed by the
      frame this traceback corresponds to.

   lineno

      The line number of the current line associated with the code
      being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

   function

      The function name that is being executed by the frame this
      traceback corresponds to.

   code_context

      A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
      executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

   index

      The index of the current line being executed in the
      "code_context" list.

   positions

      A "dis.Positions" object containing the start line number, end
      line number, start column offset, and end column offset
      associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this
      traceback corresponds to.

   Changed in version 3.11: "Traceback" is now a class instance (that
   is backwards compatible with the previous *named tuple*).

Note:

  Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element
  of the frame records these functions return, can cause your program
  to create reference cycles.  Once a reference cycle has been
  created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed from the
  objects which form the cycle can become much longer even if Python’s
  optional cycle detector is enabled.  If such cycles must be created,
  it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
  delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption
  which occurs.Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction
  of the frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by
  removing the cycle in a "finally" clause.  This is also important if
  the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or using
  "gc.disable()".  For example:

     def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
         frame = inspect.currentframe()
         try:
             # do something with the frame
         finally:
             del frame

  If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a
  traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
  "frame.clear()" method.

The optional *context* argument supported by most of these functions
specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered
around the current line.

inspect.getframeinfo(frame, context=1)

   Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A "Traceback"
   object is returned.

   Changed in version 3.11: A "Traceback" object is returned instead
   of a named tuple.

inspect.getouterframes(frame, context=1)

   Get a list of "FrameInfo" objects for a frame and all outer frames.
   These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of
   *frame*. The first entry in the returned list represents *frame*;
   the last entry represents the outermost call on *frame*’s stack.

   Changed in version 3.5: A list of *named tuples* "FrameInfo(frame,
   filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)" is returned.

   Changed in version 3.11: A list of "FrameInfo" objects is returned.

inspect.getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)

   Get a list of "FrameInfo" objects for a traceback’s frame and all
   inner frames.  These frames represent calls made as a consequence
   of *frame*. The first entry in the list represents *traceback*; the
   last entry represents where the exception was raised.

   Changed in version 3.5: A list of *named tuples* "FrameInfo(frame,
   filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)" is returned.

   Changed in version 3.11: A list of "FrameInfo" objects is returned.

inspect.currentframe()

   Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.

   **CPython implementation detail:** This function relies on Python
   stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to
   exist in all implementations of Python.  If running in an
   implementation without Python stack frame support this function
   returns "None".

inspect.stack(context=1)

   Return a list of "FrameInfo" objects for the caller’s stack.  The
   first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last
   entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

   Changed in version 3.5: A list of *named tuples* "FrameInfo(frame,
   filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)" is returned.

   Changed in version 3.11: A list of "FrameInfo" objects is returned.

inspect.trace(context=1)

   Return a list of "FrameInfo" objects for the stack between the
   current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being
   handled was raised in.  The first entry in the list represents the
   caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.

   Changed in version 3.5: A list of *named tuples* "FrameInfo(frame,
   filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)" is returned.

   Changed in version 3.11: A list of "FrameInfo" objects is returned.


Fetching attributes statically
==============================

Both "getattr()" and "hasattr()" can trigger code execution when
fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors,
like properties, will be invoked and "__getattr__()" and
"__getattribute__()" may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation
tools, this can be inconvenient. "getattr_static()" has the same
signature as "getattr()" but avoids executing code when it fetches
attributes.

inspect.getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)

   Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
   descriptor protocol, "__getattr__()" or "__getattribute__()".

   Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that
   getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may
   find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise
   AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of
   instance members.

   If the instance "__dict__" is shadowed by another member (for
   example a property) then this function will be unable to find
   instance members.

   New in version 3.2.

"getattr_static()" does not resolve descriptors, for example slot
descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The
descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following. Note that for
arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code
execution:

   # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
   class _foo:
       __slots__ = ['foo']

   slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
   getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
   wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
   descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

   result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
   if type(result) in descriptor_types:
       try:
           result = result.__get__()
       except AttributeError:
           # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
           # indicate there is no underlying value
           # in which case the descriptor itself will
           # have to do
           pass


Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators
====================================================================

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated. "getgeneratorstate()" allows the current state of a
generator to be determined easily.

inspect.getgeneratorstate(generator)

   Get current state of a generator-iterator.

   Possible states are:

   * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

   * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

   * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

   * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

   New in version 3.2.

inspect.getcoroutinestate(coroutine)

   Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended
   to be used with coroutine objects created by "async def" functions,
   but will accept any coroutine-like object that has "cr_running" and
   "cr_frame" attributes.

   Possible states are:

   * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

   * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

   * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.

   * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.getasyncgenstate(agen)

   Get current state of an asynchronous generator object.  The
   function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects
   created by "async def" functions which use the "yield" statement,
   but will accept any asynchronous generator-like object that has
   "ag_running" and "ag_frame" attributes.

   Possible states are:

   * AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

   * AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

   * AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

   * AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

   New in version 3.12.

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This
is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state
is being updated as expected:

inspect.getgeneratorlocals(generator)

   Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their
   current values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable
   names to values. This is the equivalent of calling "locals()" in
   the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply.

   If *generator* is a *generator* with no currently associated frame,
   then an empty dictionary is returned.  "TypeError" is raised if
   *generator* is not a Python generator object.

   **CPython implementation detail:** This function relies on the
   generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which
   isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python.
   In such cases, this function will always return an empty
   dictionary.

   New in version 3.3.

inspect.getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)

   This function is analogous to "getgeneratorlocals()", but works for
   coroutine objects created by "async def" functions.

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.getasyncgenlocals(agen)

   This function is analogous to "getgeneratorlocals()", but works for
   asynchronous generator objects created by "async def" functions
   which use the "yield" statement.

   New in version 3.12.


Code Objects Bit Flags
======================

Python code objects have a "co_flags" attribute, which is a bitmap of
the following flags:

inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

   The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

   If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s "f_locals" when
   the code object is executed.

inspect.CO_VARARGS

   The code object has a variable positional parameter ("*args"-like).

inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

   The code object has a variable keyword parameter ("**kwargs"-like).

inspect.CO_NESTED

   The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

inspect.CO_GENERATOR

   The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
   a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

inspect.CO_COROUTINE

   The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function. When
   the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object. See
   **PEP 492** for more details.

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

   The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
   coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
   "await" expression, and can "yield from" coroutine objects. See
   **PEP 492** for more details.

   New in version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

   The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
   function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
   asynchronous generator object.  See **PEP 525** for more details.

   New in version 3.6.

Note:

  The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
  Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an
  implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future
  Python releases. It’s recommended to use public APIs from the
  "inspect" module for any introspection needs.


Buffer flags
============

class inspect.BufferFlags

   This is an "enum.IntFlag" that represents the flags that can be
   passed to the "__buffer__()" method of objects implementing the
   buffer protocol.

   The meaning of the flags is explained at Buffer request types.

   SIMPLE

   WRITABLE

   FORMAT

   ND

   STRIDES

   C_CONTIGUOUS

   F_CONTIGUOUS

   ANY_CONTIGUOUS

   INDIRECT

   CONTIG

   CONTIG_RO

   STRIDED

   STRIDED_RO

   RECORDS

   RECORDS_RO

   FULL

   FULL_RO

   READ

   WRITE

   New in version 3.12.


Command Line Interface
======================

The "inspect" module also provides a basic introspection capability
from the command line.

By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead
by appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.

--details

   Print information about the specified object rather than the source
   code
