Memory Management
*****************


Overview
========

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all
Python objects and data structures. The management of this private
heap is ensured internally by the *Python memory manager*.  The Python
memory manager has different components which deal with various
dynamic storage management aspects, like sharing, segmentation,
preallocation or caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is
enough room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by
interacting with the memory manager of the operating system. On top of
the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate
on the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies
adapted to the peculiarities of every object type. For example,
integer objects are managed differently within the heap than strings,
tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage
requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus
delegates some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but
ensures that the latter operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap
is performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no
control over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to
memory blocks inside that heap.  The allocation of heap space for
Python objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by
the Python memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in
this document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to
operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C
library: "malloc()", "calloc()", "realloc()" and "free()".  This will
result in  mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory
manager with fatal consequences, because they implement different
algorithms and operate on different heaps.  However, one may safely
allocate and release memory blocks with the C library allocator for
individual purposes, as shown in the following example:

   PyObject *res;
   char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

   if (buf == NULL)
       return PyErr_NoMemory();
   ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
   free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
   return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by
the C library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in
the allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from
the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of
the Python memory manager. For example, this is required when the
interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another
reason for using the Python heap is the desire to *inform* the Python
memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module. Even
when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly
specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory
manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain
circumstances, the Python memory manager may or may not trigger
appropriate actions, like garbage collection, memory compaction or
other preventive procedures. Note that by using the C library
allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory for
the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.

See also:

  The "PYTHONMALLOC" environment variable can be used to configure the
  memory allocators used by Python.

  The "PYTHONMALLOCSTATS" environment variable can be used to print
  statistics of the pymalloc memory allocator every time a new
  pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.


Allocator Domains
=================

All allocating functions belong to one of three different “domains”
(see also "PyMemAllocatorDomain"). These domains represent different
allocation strategies and are optimized for different purposes. The
specific details on how every domain allocates memory or what internal
functions each domain calls is considered an implementation detail,
but for debugging purposes a simplified table can be found at here.
There is no hard requirement to use the memory returned by the
allocation functions belonging to a given domain for only the purposes
hinted by that domain (although this is the recommended practice). For
example, one could use the memory returned by "PyMem_RawMalloc()" for
allocating Python objects or the memory returned by
"PyObject_Malloc()" for allocating memory for buffers.

The three allocation domains are:

* Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
  memory buffers where the allocation *must* go to the system
  allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *GIL*. The
  memory is requested directly to the system.

* “Mem” domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
  general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
  performed with the *GIL* held. The memory is taken from the Python
  private heap.

* Object domain: intended for allocating memory belonging to Python
  objects. The memory is taken from the Python private heap.

When freeing memory previously allocated by the allocating functions
belonging to a given domain,the matching specific deallocating
functions must be used. For example, "PyMem_Free()" must be used to
free memory allocated using "PyMem_Malloc()".


Raw Memory Interface
====================

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator.
These functions are thread-safe, the *GIL* does not need to be held.

The default raw memory allocator uses the following functions:
"malloc()", "calloc()", "realloc()" and "free()"; call "malloc(1)" (or
"calloc(1, 1)") when requesting zero bytes.

Added in version 3.4.

void *PyMem_RawMalloc(size_t n)

   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
   allocated memory, or "NULL" if the request fails.

   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-"NULL" pointer if
   possible, as if "PyMem_RawMalloc(1)" had been called instead. The
   memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyMem_RawCalloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and
   returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or "NULL"
   if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
   distinct non-"NULL" pointer if possible, as if "PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
   1)" had been called instead.

   Added in version 3.5.

void *PyMem_RawRealloc(void *p, size_t n)

   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The
   contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
   sizes.

   If *p* is "NULL", the call is equivalent to "PyMem_RawMalloc(n)";
   else if *n* is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
   not freed, and the returned pointer is non-"NULL".

   Unless *p* is "NULL", it must have been returned by a previous call
   to "PyMem_RawMalloc()", "PyMem_RawRealloc()" or
   "PyMem_RawCalloc()".

   If the request fails, "PyMem_RawRealloc()" returns "NULL" and *p*
   remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyMem_RawFree(void *p)

   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been
   returned by a previous call to "PyMem_RawMalloc()",
   "PyMem_RawRealloc()" or "PyMem_RawCalloc()".  Otherwise, or if
   "PyMem_RawFree(p)" has been called before, undefined behavior
   occurs.

   If *p* is "NULL", no operation is performed.


Memory Interface
================

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

The default memory allocator uses the pymalloc memory allocator.

Warning:

  The *GIL* must be held when using these functions.

Changed in version 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead
of system "malloc()".

void *PyMem_Malloc(size_t n)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
   allocated memory, or "NULL" if the request fails.

   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-"NULL" pointer if
   possible, as if "PyMem_Malloc(1)" had been called instead. The
   memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyMem_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.7.*

   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and
   returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or "NULL"
   if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
   distinct non-"NULL" pointer if possible, as if "PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)"
   had been called instead.

   Added in version 3.5.

void *PyMem_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The
   contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
   sizes.

   If *p* is "NULL", the call is equivalent to "PyMem_Malloc(n)"; else
   if *n* is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not
   freed, and the returned pointer is non-"NULL".

   Unless *p* is "NULL", it must have been returned by a previous call
   to "PyMem_Malloc()", "PyMem_Realloc()" or "PyMem_Calloc()".

   If the request fails, "PyMem_Realloc()" returns "NULL" and *p*
   remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyMem_Free(void *p)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been
   returned by a previous call to "PyMem_Malloc()", "PyMem_Realloc()"
   or "PyMem_Calloc()".  Otherwise, or if "PyMem_Free(p)" has been
   called before, undefined behavior occurs.

   If *p* is "NULL", no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note
that *TYPE* refers to any C type.

PyMem_New(TYPE, n)

   Same as "PyMem_Malloc()", but allocates "(n * sizeof(TYPE))" bytes
   of memory.  Returns a pointer cast to "TYPE*".  The memory will not
   have been initialized in any way.

PyMem_Resize(p, TYPE, n)

   Same as "PyMem_Realloc()", but the memory block is resized to "(n *
   sizeof(TYPE))" bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to "TYPE*". On
   return, *p* will be a pointer to the new memory area, or "NULL" in
   the event of failure.

   This is a C preprocessor macro; *p* is always reassigned.  Save the
   original value of *p* to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

void PyMem_Del(void *p)

   Same as "PyMem_Free()".

In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the
Python memory allocator directly, without involving the C API
functions listed above. However, note that their use does not preserve
binary compatibility across Python versions and is therefore
deprecated in extension modules.

* "PyMem_MALLOC(size)"

* "PyMem_NEW(type, size)"

* "PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)"

* "PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)"

* "PyMem_FREE(ptr)"

* "PyMem_DEL(ptr)"


Object allocators
=================

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

Note:

  There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these allocators
  can be successfully cast to a Python object when intercepting the
  allocating functions in this domain by the methods described in the
  Customize Memory Allocators section.

The default object allocator uses the pymalloc memory allocator.

Warning:

  The *GIL* must be held when using these functions.

void *PyObject_Malloc(size_t n)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
   allocated memory, or "NULL" if the request fails.

   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-"NULL" pointer if
   possible, as if "PyObject_Malloc(1)" had been called instead. The
   memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyObject_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.7.*

   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and
   returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or "NULL"
   if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
   distinct non-"NULL" pointer if possible, as if "PyObject_Calloc(1,
   1)" had been called instead.

   Added in version 3.5.

void *PyObject_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The
   contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
   sizes.

   If *p* is "NULL", the call is equivalent to "PyObject_Malloc(n)";
   else if *n* is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
   not freed, and the returned pointer is non-"NULL".

   Unless *p* is "NULL", it must have been returned by a previous call
   to "PyObject_Malloc()", "PyObject_Realloc()" or
   "PyObject_Calloc()".

   If the request fails, "PyObject_Realloc()" returns "NULL" and *p*
   remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyObject_Free(void *p)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been
   returned by a previous call to "PyObject_Malloc()",
   "PyObject_Realloc()" or "PyObject_Calloc()".  Otherwise, or if
   "PyObject_Free(p)" has been called before, undefined behavior
   occurs.

   If *p* is "NULL", no operation is performed.


Default Memory Allocators
=========================

Default memory allocators:

+---------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| Configuration                   | Name                 | PyMem_RawMalloc    | PyMem_Malloc          | PyObject_Malloc      |
|=================================|======================|====================|=======================|======================|
| Release build                   | ""pymalloc""         | "malloc"           | "pymalloc"            | "pymalloc"           |
+---------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| Debug build                     | ""pymalloc_debug""   | "malloc" + debug   | "pymalloc" + debug    | "pymalloc" + debug   |
+---------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| Release build, without pymalloc | ""malloc""           | "malloc"           | "malloc"              | "malloc"             |
+---------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| Debug build, without pymalloc   | ""malloc_debug""     | "malloc" + debug   | "malloc" + debug      | "malloc" + debug     |
+---------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------+-----------------------+----------------------+

Legend:

* Name: value for "PYTHONMALLOC" environment variable.

* "malloc": system allocators from the standard C library, C
  functions: "malloc()", "calloc()", "realloc()" and "free()".

* "pymalloc": pymalloc memory allocator.

* “+ debug”: with debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.

* “Debug build”: Python build in debug mode.


Customize Memory Allocators
===========================

Added in version 3.4.

type PyMemAllocatorEx

   Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure
   has the following fields:

   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | Field                                                      | Meaning                                 |
   |============================================================|=========================================|
   | "void *ctx"                                                | user context passed as first argument   |
   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)"                     | allocate a memory block                 |
   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)"     | allocate a memory block initialized     |
   |                                                            | with zeros                              |
   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)"     | allocate or resize a memory block       |
   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)"                          | free a memory block                     |
   +------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+

   Changed in version 3.5: The "PyMemAllocator" structure was renamed
   to "PyMemAllocatorEx" and a new "calloc" field was added.

type PyMemAllocatorDomain

   Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains:

   PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

      Functions:

      * "PyMem_RawMalloc()"

      * "PyMem_RawRealloc()"

      * "PyMem_RawCalloc()"

      * "PyMem_RawFree()"

   PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

      Functions:

      * "PyMem_Malloc()",

      * "PyMem_Realloc()"

      * "PyMem_Calloc()"

      * "PyMem_Free()"

   PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

      Functions:

      * "PyObject_Malloc()"

      * "PyObject_Realloc()"

      * "PyObject_Calloc()"

      * "PyObject_Free()"

void PyMem_GetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

   Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

void PyMem_SetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

   Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

   The new allocator must return a distinct non-"NULL" pointer when
   requesting zero bytes.

   For the "PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW" domain, the allocator must be thread-
   safe: the *GIL* is not held when the allocator is called.

   For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
   the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
   share a "GIL".

   If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous
   allocator), the "PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()" function must be called
   to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

   See also "PyPreConfig.allocator" and Preinitialize Python with
   PyPreConfig.

   Warning:

     "PyMem_SetAllocator()" does have the following contract:

     * It can be called after "Py_PreInitialize()" and before
       "Py_InitializeFromConfig()" to install a custom memory
       allocator. There are no restrictions over the installed
       allocator other than the ones imposed by the domain (for
       instance, the Raw Domain allows the allocator to be called
       without the GIL held). See the section on allocator domains for
       more information.

     * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
       "Py_InitializeFromConfig()" has been called) the allocator
       **must** wrap the existing allocator. Substituting the current
       allocator for some other arbitrary one is **not supported**.

   Changed in version 3.12: All allocators must be thread-safe.

void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(void)

   Setup debug hooks in the Python memory allocators to detect memory
   errors.


Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators
===========================================

When Python is built in debug mode, the "PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()"
function is called at the Python preinitialization to setup debug
hooks on Python memory allocators to detect memory errors.

The "PYTHONMALLOC" environment variable can be used to install debug
hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex: "PYTHONMALLOC=debug").

The "PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()" function can be used to set debug hooks
after calling "PyMem_SetAllocator()".

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with
special, recognizable bit patterns. Newly allocated memory is filled
with the byte "0xCD" ("PYMEM_CLEANBYTE"), freed memory is filled with
the byte "0xDD" ("PYMEM_DEADBYTE"). Memory blocks are surrounded by
“forbidden bytes” filled with the byte "0xFD" ("PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE").
Strings of these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or
ASCII strings.

Runtime checks:

* Detect API violations. For example, detect if "PyObject_Free()" is
  called on a memory block allocated by "PyMem_Malloc()".

* Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

* Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

* Check that the *GIL* is held when allocator functions of
  "PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" (ex: "PyObject_Malloc()") and "PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"
  (ex: "PyMem_Malloc()") domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the "tracemalloc" module to get the
traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only
displayed if "tracemalloc" is tracing Python memory allocations and
the memory block was traced.

Let *S* = "sizeof(size_t)". "2*S" bytes are added at each end of each
block of *N* bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function ("p[i:j]" means the slice of bytes from "*(p+i)" inclusive up
to "*(p+j)" exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

"p[-2*S:-S]"
   Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
   (easier to read in a memory dump).

"p[-S]"
   API identifier (ASCII character):

   * "'r'" for "PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW".

   * "'m'" for "PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM".

   * "'o'" for "PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ".

"p[-S+1:0]"
   Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE.  Used to catch under- writes and
   reads.

"p[0:N]"
   The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
   to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
   function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
   bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE.  When a free-like
   function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
   catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
   called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
   also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

"p[N:N+S]"
   Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE.  Used to catch over- writes and
   reads.

"p[N+S:N+2*S]"
   Only used if the "PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO" macro is defined (not
   defined by default).

   A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
   realloc-like function.  Big-endian "size_t".  If “bad memory” is
   detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
   breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
   block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
   obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
   exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they’ve been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking
a memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns
and tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and
look at the object, you’re likely to see that it’s entirely filled
with PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or
PYMEM_CLEANBYTE (meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

Changed in version 3.6: The "PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()" function now
also works on Python compiled in release mode.  On error, the debug
hooks now use "tracemalloc" to get the traceback where a memory block
was allocated. The debug hooks now also check if the GIL is held when
functions of "PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" and "PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" domains are
called.

Changed in version 3.8: Byte patterns "0xCB" ("PYMEM_CLEANBYTE"),
"0xDB" ("PYMEM_DEADBYTE") and "0xFB" ("PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE") have been
replaced with "0xCD", "0xDD" and "0xFD" to use the same values than
Windows CRT debug "malloc()" and "free()".


The pymalloc allocator
======================

Python has a *pymalloc* allocator optimized for small objects (smaller
or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings
called “arenas” with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit
platforms or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms. It falls back to
"PyMem_RawMalloc()" and "PyMem_RawRealloc()" for allocations larger
than 512 bytes.

*pymalloc* is the default allocator of the "PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" (ex:
"PyMem_Malloc()") and "PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" (ex: "PyObject_Malloc()")
domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

* "VirtualAlloc()" and "VirtualFree()" on Windows,

* "mmap()" and "munmap()" if available,

* "malloc()" and "free()" otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the "--
without-pymalloc" option. It can also be disabled at runtime using the
"PYTHONMALLOC" environment variable (ex: "PYTHONMALLOC=malloc").


Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
----------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

type PyObjectArenaAllocator

   Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has
   three fields:

   +----------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | Field                                              | Meaning                                 |
   |====================================================|=========================================|
   | "void *ctx"                                        | user context passed as first argument   |
   +----------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)"              | allocate an arena of size bytes         |
   +----------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
   | "void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)"     | free an arena                           |
   +----------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+

void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)

   Get the arena allocator.

void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)

   Set the arena allocator.


tracemalloc C API
=================

Added in version 3.7.

int PyTraceMalloc_Track(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr, size_t size)

   Track an allocated memory block in the "tracemalloc" module.

   Return "0" on success, return "-1" on error (failed to allocate
   memory to store the trace). Return "-2" if tracemalloc is disabled.

   If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr)

   Untrack an allocated memory block in the "tracemalloc" module. Do
   nothing if the block was not tracked.

   Return "-2" if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return "0".


Examples
========

Here is the example from section Overview, rewritten so that the I/O
buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function
set:

   PyObject *res;
   char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

   if (buf == NULL)
       return PyErr_NoMemory();
   /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
   PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
   return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

   PyObject *res;
   char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

   if (buf == NULL)
       return PyErr_NoMemory();
   /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
   PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
   return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated
via functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use
the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk
of mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following
code sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as *fatal*
because it mixes two different allocators operating on different
heaps.

   char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
   char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
   char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
   ...
   PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
   free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
   free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from
the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with
"PyObject_New", "PyObject_NewVar" and "PyObject_Del()".

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and
implementing new object types in C.
