
``functools`` --- Higher order functions and operations on callable objects
***************************************************************************

The ``functools`` module is for higher-order functions: functions that
act on or return other functions. In general, any callable object can
be treated as a function for the purposes of this module.

The ``functools`` module defines the following functions:

functools.partial(func, *args, **keywords)

   Return a new ``partial`` object which when called will behave like
   *func* called with the positional arguments *args* and keyword
   arguments *keywords*. If more arguments are supplied to the call,
   they are appended to *args*. If additional keyword arguments are
   supplied, they extend and override *keywords*. Roughly equivalent
   to:

      def partial(func, *args, **keywords):
          def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
              newkeywords = keywords.copy()
              newkeywords.update(fkeywords)
              return func(*(args + fargs), **newkeywords)
          newfunc.func = func
          newfunc.args = args
          newfunc.keywords = keywords
          return newfunc

   The ``partial()`` is used for partial function application which
   "freezes" some portion of a function's arguments and/or keywords
   resulting in a new object with a simplified signature.  For
   example, ``partial()`` can be used to create a callable that
   behaves like the ``int()`` function where the *base* argument
   defaults to two:

   >>> from functools import partial
   >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
   >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
   >>> basetwo('10010')
   18

functools.reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])

   Apply *function* of two arguments cumulatively to the items of
   *sequence*, from left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a
   single value.  For example, ``reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4,
   5])`` calculates ``((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)``. The left argument, *x*, is
   the accumulated value and the right argument, *y*, is the update
   value from the *sequence*.  If the optional *initializer* is
   present, it is placed before the items of the sequence in the
   calculation, and serves as a default when the sequence is empty.
   If *initializer* is not given and *sequence* contains only one
   item, the first item is returned.

functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

   Update a *wrapper* function to look like the *wrapped* function.
   The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of
   the original function are assigned directly to the matching
   attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the
   wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from
   the original function. The default values for these arguments are
   the module level constants *WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS* (which assigns to
   the wrapper function's *__name__*, *__module__*, *__annotations__*
   and *__doc__*, the documentation string) and *WRAPPER_UPDATES*
   (which updates the wrapper function's *__dict__*, i.e. the instance
   dictionary).

   The main intended use for this function is in *decorator* functions
   which wrap the decorated function and return the wrapper. If the
   wrapper function is not updated, the metadata of the returned
   function will reflect the wrapper definition rather than the
   original function definition, which is typically less than helpful.

functools.wraps(wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

   This is a convenience function for invoking
   ``partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned,
   updated=updated)`` as a function decorator when defining a wrapper
   function. For example:

   >>> from functools import wraps
   >>> def my_decorator(f):
   ...     @wraps(f)
   ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
   ...         print('Calling decorated function')
   ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
   ...     return wrapper
   ...
   >>> @my_decorator
   ... def example():
   ...     """Docstring"""
   ...     print('Called example function')
   ...
   >>> example()
   Calling decorated function
   Called example function
   >>> example.__name__
   'example'
   >>> example.__doc__
   'Docstring'

   Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example
   function would have been ``'wrapper'``, and the docstring of the
   original ``example()`` would have been lost.


``partial`` Objects
===================

``partial`` objects are callable objects created by ``partial()``.
They have three read-only attributes:

partial.func

   A callable object or function.  Calls to the ``partial`` object
   will be forwarded to ``func`` with new arguments and keywords.

partial.args

   The leftmost positional arguments that will be prepended to the
   positional arguments provided to a ``partial`` object call.

partial.keywords

   The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the ``partial``
   object is called.

``partial`` objects are like ``function`` objects in that they are
callable, weak referencable, and can have attributes.  There are some
important differences.  For instance, the ``__name__`` and ``__doc__``
attributes are not created automatically.  Also, ``partial`` objects
defined in classes behave like static methods and do not transform
into bound methods during instance attribute look-up.
