Exception Handling
******************

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise
Python exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics
of Python exception handling.  It works somewhat like the Unix "errno"
variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error
that occurred.  Most functions don’t clear this on success, but will
set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure.  Most functions
also return an error indicator, usually *NULL* if they are supposed to
return a pointer, or "-1" if they return an integer (exception: the
"PyArg_*()" functions return "1" for success and "0" for failure).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it
generally doesn’t set the error indicator; the function it called
already set it.  It is responsible for either handling the error and
clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it
holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should
*not* continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error.  If
returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller
that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as
intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

The error indicator consists of three Python objects corresponding to
the Python variables "sys.exc_type", "sys.exc_value" and
"sys.exc_traceback". API functions exist to interact with the error
indicator in various ways.  There is a separate error indicator for
each thread.

void PyErr_PrintEx(int set_sys_last_vars)

   Print a standard traceback to "sys.stderr" and clear the error
   indicator. **Unless** the error is a "SystemExit".  In that case
   the no traceback is printed and Python process will exit with the
   error code specified by the "SystemExit" instance.

   Call this function **only** when the error indicator is set.
   Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

   If *set_sys_last_vars* is nonzero, the variables "sys.last_type",
   "sys.last_value" and "sys.last_traceback" will be set to the type,
   value and traceback of the printed exception, respectively.

void PyErr_Print()

   Alias for "PyErr_PrintEx(1)".

PyObject* PyErr_Occurred()
    *Return value: Borrowed reference.*

   Test whether the error indicator is set.  If set, return the
   exception *type* (the first argument to the last call to one of the
   "PyErr_Set*()" functions or to "PyErr_Restore()").  If not set,
   return *NULL*.  You do not own a reference to the return value, so
   you do not need to "Py_DECREF()" it.

   Note: Do not compare the return value to a specific exception;
     use "PyErr_ExceptionMatches()" instead, shown below.  (The
     comparison could easily fail since the exception may be an
     instance instead of a class, in the case of a class exception, or
     it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)

int PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyObject *exc)

   Equivalent to "PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)".
   This should only be called when an exception is actually set; a
   memory access violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyObject *given, PyObject *exc)

   Return true if the *given* exception matches the exception in
   *exc*.  If *exc* is a class object, this also returns true when
   *given* is an instance of a subclass.  If *exc* is a tuple, all
   exceptions in the tuple (and recursively in subtuples) are searched
   for a match.

void PyErr_NormalizeException(PyObject**exc, PyObject**val, PyObject**tb)

   Under certain circumstances, the values returned by "PyErr_Fetch()"
   below can be “unnormalized”, meaning that "*exc" is a class object
   but "*val" is not an instance of the  same class.  This function
   can be used to instantiate the class in that case.  If the values
   are already normalized, nothing happens. The delayed normalization
   is implemented to improve performance.

void PyErr_Clear()

   Clear the error indicator.  If the error indicator is not set,
   there is no effect.

void PyErr_Fetch(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)

   Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses
   are passed. If the error indicator is not set, set all three
   variables to *NULL*.  If it is set, it will be cleared and you own
   a reference to each object retrieved.  The value and traceback
   object may be *NULL* even when the type object is not.

   Note: This function is normally only used by code that needs to
     handle exceptions or by code that needs to save and restore the
     error indicator temporarily.

void PyErr_Restore(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback)

   Set  the error indicator from the three objects.  If the error
   indicator is already set, it is cleared first.  If the objects are
   *NULL*, the error indicator is cleared.  Do not pass a *NULL* type
   and non-*NULL* value or traceback.  The exception type should be a
   class.  Do not pass an invalid exception type or value. (Violating
   these rules will cause subtle problems later.)  This call takes
   away a reference to each object: you must own a reference to each
   object before the call and after the call you no longer own these
   references.  (If you don’t understand this, don’t use this
   function.  I warned you.)

   Note: This function is normally only used by code that needs to
     save and restore the error indicator temporarily; use
     "PyErr_Fetch()" to save the current exception state.

void PyErr_SetString(PyObject *type, const char *message)

   This is the most common way to set the error indicator.  The first
   argument specifies the exception type; it is normally one of the
   standard exceptions, e.g. "PyExc_RuntimeError".  You need not
   increment its reference count. The second argument is an error
   message; it is converted to a string object.

void PyErr_SetObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *value)

   This function is similar to "PyErr_SetString()" but lets you
   specify an arbitrary Python object for the “value” of the
   exception.

PyObject* PyErr_Format(PyObject *exception, const char *format, ...)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   This function sets the error indicator and returns *NULL*.
   *exception* should be a Python exception class.  The *format* and
   subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the
   same meaning and values as in "PyString_FromFormat()".

void PyErr_SetNone(PyObject *type)

   This is a shorthand for "PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)".

int PyErr_BadArgument()

   This is a shorthand for "PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
   message)", where *message* indicates that a built-in operation was
   invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

PyObject* PyErr_NoMemory()
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   This is a shorthand for "PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)"; it
   returns *NULL* so an object allocation function can write "return
   PyErr_NoMemory();" when it runs out of memory.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrno(PyObject *type)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C
   library function has returned an error and set the C variable
   "errno".  It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the
   integer "errno" value and whose second item is the corresponding
   error message (gotten from "strerror()"), and then calls
   "PyErr_SetObject(type, object)".  On Unix, when the "errno" value
   is "EINTR", indicating an interrupted system call, this calls
   "PyErr_CheckSignals()", and if that set the error indicator, leaves
   it set to that.  The function always returns *NULL*, so a wrapper
   function around a system call can write "return
   PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);" when the system call returns an error.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromErrno()", with the additional behavior
   that if *filenameObject* is not *NULL*, it is passed to the
   constructor of *type* as a third parameter.  In the case of
   exceptions such as "IOError" and "OSError", this is used to define
   the "filename" attribute of the exception instance.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(PyObject *type, const char *filename)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject()", but the
   filename is given as a C string.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(int ierr)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   This is a convenience function to raise "WindowsError". If called
   with *ierr* of "0", the error code returned by a call to
   "GetLastError()" is used instead.  It calls the Win32 function
   "FormatMessage()" to retrieve the Windows description of error code
   given by *ierr* or "GetLastError()", then it constructs a tuple
   object whose first item is the *ierr* value and whose second item
   is the corresponding error message (gotten from "FormatMessage()"),
   and then calls "PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_WindowsError, object)". This
   function always returns *NULL*. Availability: Windows.

PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(PyObject *type, int ierr)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr()", with an additional
   parameter specifying the exception type to be raised. Availability:
   Windows.

   New in version 2.3.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(int ierr, PyObject *filenameObject)

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr()", with the additional
   behavior that if *filenameObject* is not *NULL*, it is passed to
   the constructor of "WindowsError" as a third parameter.
   Availability: Windows.

PyObject* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(int ierr, const char *filename)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()", but the
   filename is given as a C string. Availability: Windows.

PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename)

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()", with an
   additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.
   Availability: Windows.

   New in version 2.3.

PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename)
    *Return value: Always NULL.*

   Similar to "PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename()", with an
   additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.
   Availability: Windows.

   New in version 2.3.

void PyErr_BadInternalCall()

   This is a shorthand for "PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
   message)", where *message* indicates that an internal operation
   (e.g. a Python/C API function) was invoked with an illegal
   argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

int PyErr_WarnEx(PyObject *category, char *message, int stacklevel)

   Issue a warning message.  The *category* argument is a warning
   category (see below) or *NULL*; the *message* argument is a message
   string.  *stacklevel* is a positive number giving a number of stack
   frames; the warning will be issued from the  currently executing
   line of code in that stack frame.  A *stacklevel* of 1 is the
   function calling "PyErr_WarnEx()", 2 is  the function above that,
   and so forth.

   This function normally prints a warning message to *sys.stderr*;
   however, it is also possible that the user has specified that
   warnings are to be turned into errors, and in that case this will
   raise an exception.  It is also possible that the function raises
   an exception because of a problem with the warning machinery (the
   implementation imports the "warnings" module to do the heavy
   lifting). The return value is "0" if no exception is raised, or
   "-1" if an exception is raised.  (It is not possible to determine
   whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the reason
   is for the exception; this is intentional.)  If an exception is
   raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for
   example, "Py_DECREF()" owned references and return an error value).

   Warning categories must be subclasses of "PyExc_Warning";
   "PyExc_Warning" is a subclass of "PyExc_Exception"; the default
   warning category is "PyExc_RuntimeWarning". The standard Python
   warning categories are available as global variables whose names
   are enumerated at Standard Warning Categories.

   For information about warning control, see the documentation for
   the "warnings" module and the "-W" option in the command line
   documentation.  There is no C API for warning control.

int PyErr_Warn(PyObject *category, char *message)

   Issue a warning message.  The *category* argument is a warning
   category (see below) or *NULL*; the *message* argument is a message
   string.  The warning will appear to be issued from the function
   calling "PyErr_Warn()", equivalent to calling "PyErr_WarnEx()" with
   a *stacklevel* of 1.

   Deprecated; use "PyErr_WarnEx()" instead.

int PyErr_WarnExplicit(PyObject *category, const char *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry)

   Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning
   attributes.  This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python
   function "warnings.warn_explicit()", see there for more
   information.  The *module* and *registry* arguments may be set to
   *NULL* to get the default effect described there.

int PyErr_WarnPy3k(char *message, int stacklevel)

   Issue a "DeprecationWarning" with the given *message* and
   *stacklevel* if the "Py_Py3kWarningFlag" flag is enabled.

   New in version 2.6.

int PyErr_CheckSignals()

   This function interacts with Python’s signal handling.  It checks
   whether a signal has been sent to the processes and if so, invokes
   the corresponding signal handler.  If the "signal" module is
   supported, this can invoke a signal handler written in Python.  In
   all cases, the default effect for "SIGINT" is to raise the
   "KeyboardInterrupt" exception.  If an exception is raised the error
   indicator is set and the function returns "-1"; otherwise the
   function returns "0".  The error indicator may or may not be
   cleared if it was previously set.

void PyErr_SetInterrupt()

   This function simulates the effect of a "SIGINT" signal arriving —
   the next time "PyErr_CheckSignals()" is called,
   "KeyboardInterrupt" will be raised.  It may be called without
   holding the interpreter lock.

int PySignal_SetWakeupFd(int fd)

   This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which a "'\0'"
   byte will be written whenever a signal is received.  It returns the
   previous such file descriptor.  The value "-1" disables the
   feature; this is the initial state. This is equivalent to
   "signal.set_wakeup_fd()" in Python, but without any error checking.
   *fd* should be a valid file descriptor.  The function should only
   be called from the main thread.

   New in version 2.6.

PyObject* PyErr_NewException(char *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
    *Return value: New reference.*

   This utility function creates and returns a new exception class.
   The *name* argument must be the name of the new exception, a C
   string of the form "module.classname".  The *base* and *dict*
   arguments are normally *NULL*. This creates a class object derived
   from "Exception" (accessible in C as "PyExc_Exception").

   The "__module__" attribute of the new class is set to the first
   part (up to the last dot) of the *name* argument, and the class
   name is set to the last part (after the last dot).  The *base*
   argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it can
   either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The *dict* argument
   can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and methods.

PyObject* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(char *name, char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
    *Return value: New reference.*

   Same as "PyErr_NewException()", except that the new exception class
   can easily be given a docstring: If *doc* is non-*NULL*, it will be
   used as the docstring for the exception class.

   New in version 2.7.

void PyErr_WriteUnraisable(PyObject *obj)

   This utility function prints a warning message to "sys.stderr" when
   an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter
   to actually raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an
   exception occurs in an "__del__()" method.

   The function is called with a single argument *obj* that identifies
   the context in which the unraisable exception occurred. If
   possible, the repr of *obj* will be printed in the warning message.


Unicode Exception Objects
=========================

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode
exceptions from C.

PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(const char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)

   Create a "UnicodeDecodeError" object with the attributes
   *encoding*, *object*, *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*.

PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create(const char *encoding, const Py_UNICODE *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)

   Create a "UnicodeEncodeError" object with the attributes
   *encoding*, *object*, *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*.

PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create(const Py_UNICODE *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)

   Create a "UnicodeTranslateError" object with the attributes
   *object*, *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*.

PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)
PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)

   Return the *encoding* attribute of the given exception object.

PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)
PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)
PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)

   Return the *object* attribute of the given exception object.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)
int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)
int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)

   Get the *start* attribute of the given exception object and place
   it into **start*.  *start* must not be *NULL*.  Return "0" on
   success, "-1" on failure.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)
int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)
int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)

   Set the *start* attribute of the given exception object to *start*.
   Return "0" on success, "-1" on failure.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)
int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)
int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)

   Get the *end* attribute of the given exception object and place it
   into **end*.  *end* must not be *NULL*.  Return "0" on success,
   "-1" on failure.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)
int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)
int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)

   Set the *end* attribute of the given exception object to *end*.
   Return "0" on success, "-1" on failure.

PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)
PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)
PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)

   Return the *reason* attribute of the given exception object.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)
int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)
int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)

   Set the *reason* attribute of the given exception object to
   *reason*.  Return "0" on success, "-1" on failure.


Recursion Control
=================

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at
the C level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are
needed if the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code
(which tracks its recursion depth automatically).

int Py_EnterRecursiveCall(const char *where)

   Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be
   performed.

   If "USE_STACKCHECK" is defined, this function checks if the OS
   stack overflowed using "PyOS_CheckStack()".  In this is the case,
   it sets a "MemoryError" and returns a nonzero value.

   The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If
   this is the case, a "RuntimeError" is set and a nonzero value is
   returned. Otherwise, zero is returned.

   *where* should be a string such as "" in instance check"" to be
   concatenated to the "RuntimeError" message caused by the recursion
   depth limit.

void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall()

   Ends a "Py_EnterRecursiveCall()".  Must be called once for each
   *successful* invocation of "Py_EnterRecursiveCall()".


Standard Exceptions
===================

All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose
names are "PyExc_" followed by the Python exception name.  These have
the type "PyObject*"; they are all class objects.  For completeness,
here are all the variables:

+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| C Name                                    | Python Name                       | Notes      |
|===========================================|===================================|============|
| "PyExc_BaseException"                     | "BaseException"                   | (1), (4)   |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_Exception"                         | "Exception"                       | (1)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_StandardError"                     | "StandardError"                   | (1)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ArithmeticError"                   | "ArithmeticError"                 | (1)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_AssertionError"                    | "AssertionError"                  |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_AttributeError"                    | "AttributeError"                  |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_BufferError"                       | "BufferError"                     |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_EnvironmentError"                  | "EnvironmentError"                | (1)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_EOFError"                          | "EOFError"                        |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_FloatingPointError"                | "FloatingPointError"              |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_GeneratorExit"                     | "GeneratorExit"                   |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ImportError"                       | "ImportError"                     |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_IndentationError"                  | "IndentationError"                |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_IndexError"                        | "IndexError"                      |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_IOError"                           | "IOError"                         |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_KeyError"                          | "KeyError"                        |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt"                 | "KeyboardInterrupt"               |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_LookupError"                       | "LookupError"                     | (1)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_MemoryError"                       | "MemoryError"                     |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_NameError"                         | "NameError"                       |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_NotImplementedError"               | "NotImplementedError"             |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_OSError"                           | "OSError"                         |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_OverflowError"                     | "OverflowError"                   |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ReferenceError"                    | "ReferenceError"                  | (2)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_RuntimeError"                      | "RuntimeError"                    |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_StopIteration"                     | "StopIteration"                   |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_SyntaxError"                       | "SyntaxError"                     |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_SystemError"                       | "SystemError"                     |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_SystemExit"                        | "SystemExit"                      |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_TabError"                          | "TabError"                        |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_TypeError"                         | "TypeError"                       |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnboundLocalError"                 | "UnboundLocalError"               |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError"                | "UnicodeDecodeError"              |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError"                | "UnicodeEncodeError"              |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnicodeError"                      | "UnicodeError"                    |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError"             | "UnicodeTranslateError"           |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_VMSError"                          | "VMSError"                        | (5)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ValueError"                        | "ValueError"                      |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_WindowsError"                      | "WindowsError"                    | (3)        |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ZeroDivisionError"                 | "ZeroDivisionError"               |            |
+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+

Notes:

1. This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

2. This is the same as "weakref.ReferenceError".

3. Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing
   that the preprocessor macro "MS_WINDOWS" is defined.

4. New in version 2.5.

5. Only defined on VMS; protect code that uses this by testing that
   the preprocessor macro "__VMS" is defined.


Standard Warning Categories
===========================

All standard Python warning categories are available as global
variables whose names are "PyExc_" followed by the Python exception
name. These have the type "PyObject*"; they are all class objects. For
completeness, here are all the variables:

+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| C Name                                     | Python Name                       | Notes      |
|============================================|===================================|============|
| "PyExc_Warning"                            | "Warning"                         | (1)        |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_BytesWarning"                       | "BytesWarning"                    |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_DeprecationWarning"                 | "DeprecationWarning"              |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_FutureWarning"                      | "FutureWarning"                   |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_ImportWarning"                      | "ImportWarning"                   |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning"          | "PendingDeprecationWarning"       |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_RuntimeWarning"                     | "RuntimeWarning"                  |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_SyntaxWarning"                      | "SyntaxWarning"                   |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UnicodeWarning"                     | "UnicodeWarning"                  |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+
| "PyExc_UserWarning"                        | "UserWarning"                     |            |
+--------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+------------+

Notes:

1. This is a base class for other standard warning categories.


String Exceptions
=================

Changed in version 2.6: All exceptions to be raised or caught must be
derived from "BaseException". Trying to raise a string exception now
raises "TypeError".
