
Introduction
************

This reference manual describes the Python programming language. It is
not intended as a tutorial.

While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English
rather than formal specifications for everything except syntax and
lexical analysis. This should make the document more understandable to
the average reader, but will leave room for ambiguities. Consequently,
if you were coming from Mars and tried to re-implement Python from
this document alone, you might have to guess things and in fact you
would probably end up implementing quite a different language. On the
other hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise rules
about a particular area of the language are, you should definitely be
able to find them here. If you would like to see a more formal
definition of the language, maybe you could volunteer your time --- or
invent a cloning machine :-).

It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language
reference document --- the implementation may change, and other
implementations of the same language may work differently.  On the
other hand, there is currently only one Python implementation in
widespread use (although alternate implementations exist), and its
particular quirks are sometimes worth being mentioned, especially
where the implementation imposes additional limitations.  Therefore,
you'll find short "implementation notes" sprinkled throughout the
text.

Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and
standard modules.  These are documented in The Python Standard
Library.  A few built-in modules are mentioned when they interact in a
significant way with the language definition.


Alternate Implementations
=========================

Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most
popular, there are some alternate implementations which are of
particular interest to different audiences.

Known implementations include:

CPython
   This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python,
   written in C. New language features generally appear here first.

Jython
   Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a
   scripting language for Java applications, or can be used to create
   applications using the Java class libraries.  It is also often used
   to create tests for Java libraries. More information can be found
   at the Jython website.

Python for .NET
   This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but
   is a managed .NET application and makes .NET libraries available.
   It was created by Brian Lloyd.  For more information, see the
   Python for .NET home page.

IronPython
   An alternate Python for .NET.  Unlike Python.NET, this is a
   complete Python implementation that generates IL, and compiles
   Python code directly to .NET assemblies.  It was created by Jim
   Hugunin, the original creator of Jython.  For more information, see
   the IronPython website.

PyPy
   An implementation of Python written completely in Python. It
   supports several advanced features not found in other
   implementations like stackless support and a Just in Time compiler.
   One of the goals of the project is to encourage experimentation
   with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
   interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional
   information is available on the PyPy project's home page.

Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as
documented in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond
what's covered in the standard Python documentation.  Please refer to
the implementation-specific documentation to determine what else you
need to know about the specific implementation you're using.


Notation
========

The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified BNF
grammar notation.  This uses the following style of definition:

   name      ::= lc_letter (lc_letter | "_")*
   lc_letter ::= "a"..."z"

The first line says that a "name" is an "lc_letter" followed by a
sequence of zero or more "lc_letter"s and underscores.  An "lc_letter"
in turn is any of the single characters "'a'" through "'z'".  (This
rule is actually adhered to for the names defined in lexical and
grammar rules in this document.)

Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule)
and "::=".  A vertical bar ("|") is used to separate alternatives; it
is the least binding operator in this notation.  A star ("*") means
zero or more repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus ("+")
means one or more repetitions, and a phrase enclosed in square
brackets ("[ ]") means zero or one occurrences (in other words, the
enclosed phrase is optional).  The "*" and "+" operators bind as
tightly as possible; parentheses are used for grouping.  Literal
strings are enclosed in quotes.  White space is only meaningful to
separate tokens. Rules are normally contained on a single line; rules
with many alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line
after the first beginning with a vertical bar.

In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions
are used: Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice
of any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII
characters.  A phrase between angular brackets ("<...>") gives an
informal description of the symbol defined; e.g., this could be used
to describe the notion of 'control character' if needed.

Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big
difference between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a
lexical definition operates on the individual characters of the input
source, while a syntax definition operates on the stream of tokens
generated by the lexical analysis. All uses of BNF in the next chapter
("Lexical Analysis") are lexical definitions; uses in subsequent
chapters are syntactic definitions.
