# 11.5 `urllib2` -- extensible library for opening URLs

The `urllib2` module defines functions and classes which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world -- basic and digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more.

The `urllib2` module defines the following functions:

`urlopen`( | url[, data])

  Open the URL url, which can be either a string or a `Request` object.

  data may be a string specifying additional data to send to the server. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use data; the HTTP request will be a POST instead of a GET when the data parameter is provided. data should be a buffer in the standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format. The `urllib.urlencode()` function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns a string in this format.

  This function returns a file-like object with two additional methods:

  - `geturl()` -- return the URL of the resource retrieved
  - `info()` -- return the meta-information of the page, as a dictionary-like object

  Raises `URLError` on errors.

  Note that `None` may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global `OpenerDirector` uses `UnknownHandler` to ensure this never happens).

`install_opener`( | opener)

  Install an `OpenerDirector` instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call `OpenerDirector.open()` instead of `urlopen()`. The code does not check for a real `OpenerDirector`, and any class with the appropriate interface will work.

`build_opener`( | [handler, ...])

  Return an `OpenerDirector` instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. handlers can be either instances of `BaseHandler`, or subclasses of `BaseHandler` (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the handlers, unless the handlers contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: `ProxyHandler`, `UnknownHandler`, `HTTPHandler`, `HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`, `HTTPRedirectHandler`, `FTPHandler`, `FileHandler`, `HTTPErrorProcessor`.

  If the Python installation has SSL support (`socket.ssl()` exists), `HTTPSHandler` will also be added.

  Beginning in Python 2.3, a `BaseHandler` subclass may also change its `handler_order` member variable to modify its position in the handlers list. Besides `ProxyHandler`, which has `handler_order` of `100`, all handlers currently have it set to `500`.

The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:

exception `URLError`
  The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into a problem. It is a subclass of `IOError`.

exception `HTTPError`
  A subclass of `URLError`, it can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return value (the same thing that `urlopen()` returns). This is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for authentication.

exception `GopherError`
  A subclass of `URLError`, this is the error raised by the Gopher handler.

The following classes are provided:

class `Request`( | url[, data][, headers] [, origin_req_host][, unverifiable])

  This class is an abstraction of a URL request.

  url should be a string which is a valid URL. For a description of data see the `add_data()` description. headers should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if `add_header()` was called with each key and value as arguments.

  The final two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies:

  origin_req_host should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by RFC 2965. It defaults to `cookielib.request_host(self)`. This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image.

  unverifiable should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by RFC 2965. It defaults to False. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.

class `OpenerDirector`( | )

  The `OpenerDirector` class opens URLs via `BaseHandler`s chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.

class `BaseHandler`( | )

  This is the base class for all registered handlers -- and handles only the simple mechanics of registration.

class `HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`( | )

  A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into `HTTPError` exceptions.

class `HTTPRedirectHandler`( | )

  A class to handle redirections.

class `HTTPCookieProcessor`( | [cookiejar])

  A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

class `ProxyHandler`( | [proxies])

  Cause requests to go through a proxy. If proxies is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables <protocol>_proxy.

class `HTTPPasswordMgr`( | )

  Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings.

class `HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`( | )

  Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings. A realm of `None` is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits.

class `AbstractBasicAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `HTTPBasicAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `ProxyBasicAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `AbstractDigestAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `HTTPDigestAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `ProxyDigestAuthHandler`( | [password_mgr])

  Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with `HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section 11.5.7 for information on the interface that must be supported.

class `HTTPHandler`( | )

  A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

class `HTTPSHandler`( | )

  A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.

class `FileHandler`( | )

  Open local files.

class `FTPHandler`( | )

  Open FTP URLs.

class `CacheFTPHandler`( | )

  Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.

class `GopherHandler`( | )

  Open gopher URLs.

class `UnknownHandler`( | )

  A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.