\chapter{Defining New Types
        \label{defining-new-types}}
\sectionauthor{Michael Hudson}{mwh@python.net}
\sectionauthor{Dave Kuhlman}{dkuhlman@rexx.com}

As mentioned in the last chapter, Python allows the writer of an
extension module to define new types that can be manipulated from
Python code, much like strings and lists in core Python.

This is not hard; the code for all extension types follows a pattern,
but there are some details that you need to understand before you can
get started.

\section{The Basics
    \label{dnt-basics}}

The Python runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type
\ctype{PyObject*}.  A \ctype{PyObject} is not a very magnificent
object - it just contains the refcount and a pointer to the object's
``type object''.  This is where the action is; the type object
determines which (C) functions get called when, for instance, an
attribute gets looked up on an object or it is multiplied by another
object.  I call these C functions ``type methods'' to distinguish them
from things like \code{[].append} (which I will call ``object
methods'' when I get around to them).

So, if you want to define a new object type, you need to create a new
type object.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type:

\verbatiminput{noddy.c}

Now that's quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will
seem familiar from the last chapter.

The first bit that will be new is:

\begin{verbatim}
staticforward PyTypeObject noddy_NoddyType;
\end{verbatim}

This names the type object that will be defining further down in the
file.  It can't be defined here because its definition has to refer to
functions that have no yet been defined, but we need to be able to
refer to it, hence the declaration.

The \code{staticforward} is required to placate various brain dead
compilers.  The actual definition of the object declared using
\code{staticforward} should use \code{statichere} instead of
\keyword{static}.

\begin{verbatim}
typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
} noddy_NoddyObject;
\end{verbatim}

This is what a Noddy object will contain.  In this case nothing more
than every Python object contains - a refcount and a pointer to a type
object.  These are the fields the \code{PyObject_HEAD} macro brings
in.  The reason for the macro is to standardize the layout and to
enable special debugging fields in debug builds.  Note that there is
no semicolon after the \code{PyObject_HEAD} macro; one is included in
the macro definition.  Be wary of adding one by accident; it's easy to
do from habit, and your compiler might not complain, but someone
else's probably will!  (On Windows, MSVC is known to call this an
error and refuse to produce compiled code.)

For contrast, let's take a look at the corresponding definition for
standard Python integers:

\begin{verbatim}
typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    long ob_ival;
} PyIntObject;
\end{verbatim}

Next up is:

\begin{verbatim}
static PyObject*
noddy_new_noddy(PyObject* self, PyObject* args)
{
    noddy_NoddyObject* noddy;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,":new_noddy")) 
        return NULL;

    noddy = PyObject_New(noddy_NoddyObject, &noddy_NoddyType);

    return (PyObject*)noddy;
}
\end{verbatim}

This is in fact just a regular module function, as described in the
last chapter.  The reason it gets special mention is that this is
where we create our Noddy object.  Defining \ctype{PyTypeObject}
structures is all very well, but if there's no way to actually
\emph{create} one of the wretched things it is not going to do anyone
much good.

Almost always, you create objects with a call of the form:

\begin{verbatim}
PyObject_New(<type>, &<type object>);
\end{verbatim}

This allocates the memory and then initializes the object (sets
the reference count to one, makes the \member{ob_type} pointer point at
the right place and maybe some other stuff, depending on build options).
You \emph{can} do these steps separately if you have some reason to
--- but at this level we don't bother.

Note that \cfunction{PyObject_New()} is a polymorphic macro rather
than a real function.  The first parameter is the name of the C
structure that represents an object of our new type, and the return
value is a pointer to that type.  This would be
\ctype{noddy_NoddyObject} in our example:

\begin{verbatim}
    noddy_NoddyObject *my_noddy;

    my_noddy = PyObject_New(noddy_NoddyObject, &noddy_NoddyType);
\end{verbatim}

We cast the return value to a \ctype{PyObject*} because that's what
the Python runtime expects.  This is safe because of guarantees about
the layout of structures in the C standard, and is a fairly common C
programming trick.  One could declare \cfunction{noddy_new_noddy} to
return a \ctype{noddy_NoddyObject*} and then put a cast in the
definition of \cdata{noddy_methods} further down the file --- it
doesn't make much difference.

Now a Noddy object doesn't do very much and so doesn't need to
implement many type methods.  One you can't avoid is handling
deallocation, so we find

\begin{verbatim}
static void
noddy_noddy_dealloc(PyObject* self)
{
    PyObject_Del(self);
}
\end{verbatim}

This is so short as to be self explanatory.  This function will be
called when the reference count on a Noddy object reaches \code{0} (or
it is found as part of an unreachable cycle by the cyclic garbage
collector).  \cfunction{PyObject_Del()} is what you call when you want
an object to go away.  If a Noddy object held references to other
Python objects, one would decref them here.

Moving on, we come to the crunch --- the type object.

\begin{verbatim}
statichere PyTypeObject noddy_NoddyType = {
    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
    0,                          /* ob_size */
    "Noddy",                    /* tp_name */
    sizeof(noddy_NoddyObject),  /* tp_basicsize */
    0,                          /* tp_itemsize */
    noddy_noddy_dealloc,        /* tp_dealloc */
    0,                          /* tp_print */
    0,                          /* tp_getattr */
    0,                          /* tp_setattr */
    0,                          /* tp_compare */
    0,                          /* tp_repr */
    0,                          /* tp_as_number */
    0,                          /* tp_as_sequence */
    0,                          /* tp_as_mapping */
    0,                          /* tp_hash */
};
\end{verbatim}

(Note the use of \code{statichere} instead of \keyword{static}, since
we used \code{staticforward} in the declaration.)

Now if you go and look up the definition of \ctype{PyTypeObject} in
\file{object.h} you'll see that it has many, many more fields that the
definition above.  The remaining fields will be filled with zeros by
the C compiler, and it's common practice to not specify them
explicitly unless you need them.  

This is so important that I'm going to pick the top of it apart still
further:

\begin{verbatim}
    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
\end{verbatim}

This line is a bit of a wart; what we'd like to write is:

\begin{verbatim}
    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type)
\end{verbatim}

as the type of a type object is ``type'', but this isn't strictly
conforming C and some compilers complain.  So instead we fill in the
\member{ob_type} field of \cdata{noddy_NoddyType} at the earliest
oppourtunity --- in \cfunction{initnoddy()}.

\begin{verbatim}
    0,                          /* ob_size */
\end{verbatim}

The \member{ob_size} field of the header is not used; it's presence in
the type structure is a historical artifact that is maintained for
binary compatibility with extension modules compiled for older
versions of Python.  Always set this field to zero.

\begin{verbatim}
    "Noddy",                    /* tp_name */
\end{verbatim}

The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual
representation of our objects and in some error messages, for example:

\begin{verbatim}
>>> "" + noddy.new_noddy()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: cannot add type "Noddy" to string
\end{verbatim}

\begin{verbatim}
    sizeof(noddy_NoddyObject),  /* tp_basicsize */
\end{verbatim}

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when you call
\cfunction{PyObject_New}.

\begin{verbatim}
    0,                          /* tp_itemsize */
\end{verbatim}

This has to do with variable length objects like lists and strings.
Ignore for now...

Now we get into the type methods, the things that make your objects
different from the others.  Of course, the Noddy object doesn't
implement many of these, but as mentioned above you have to implement
the deallocation function.

\begin{verbatim}
    noddy_noddy_dealloc,        /* tp_dealloc */
\end{verbatim}

From here, all the type methods are \NULL, so I won't go over them yet
--- that's for the next section!

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for this line
in \cfunction{initnoddy}:

\begin{verbatim}
    noddy_NoddyType.ob_type = &PyType_Type;
\end{verbatim}

This was alluded to above --- the \cdata{noddy_NoddyType} object should
have type ``type'', but \code{\&PyType_Type} is not constant and so
can't be used in its initializer.  To work around this, we patch it up
in the module initialization.

That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called \file{noddymodule.c} and

\begin{verbatim}
from distutils.core import setup, Extension
setup(name="noddy", version="1.0",
      ext_modules=[Extension("noddy", ["noddymodule.c"])])
\end{verbatim}

in a file called \file{setup.py}; then typing

\begin{verbatim}
$ python setup.py build
\end{verbatim} %$ <-- bow to font-lock  ;-(

at a shell should produce a file \file{noddy.so} in a subdirectory;
move to that directory and fire up Python --- you should be able to
\code{import noddy} and play around with Noddy objects.

That wasn't so hard, was it?


\section{Type Methods
         \label{dnt-type-methods}}

This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods
you can implement and what they do.

Here is the definition of \ctype{PyTypeObject}, with some fields only
used in debug builds omitted:

\verbatiminput{typestruct.h}

Now that's a \emph{lot} of methods.  Don't worry too much though - if
you have a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you
will only implement a handful of these.

As you probably expect by now, we're going to go over this and give
more information about the various handlers.  We won't go in the order
they are defined in the structure, because there is a lot of
historical baggage that impacts the ordering of the fields; be sure
your type initializaion keeps the fields in the right order!  It's
often easiest to find an example that includes all the fields you need
(even if they're initialized to \code{0}) and then change the values
to suit your new type.

\begin{verbatim}
    char *tp_name; /* For printing */
\end{verbatim}

The name of the type - as mentioned in the last section, this will
appear in various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes.
Try to choose something that will be helpful in such a situation!

\begin{verbatim}
    int tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */
\end{verbatim}

These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new
objects of this typed are created.  Python has some builtin support
for variable length structures (think: strings, lists) which is where
the \member{tp_itemsize} field comes in.  This will be dealt with
later.

\begin{verbatim}
    char *tp_doc;
\end{verbatim}

Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when
the Python script references \code{obj.__doc__} to retrieve the
docstring.
   
Now we come to the basic type methods---the ones most extension types
will implement.


\subsection{Finalization and De-allocation}

\index{object!deallocation}
\index{deallocation, object}
\index{object!finalization}
\index{finalization, of objects}

\begin{verbatim}
    destructor tp_dealloc;
\end{verbatim}

This function is called when the reference count of the instance of
your type is reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to
reclaim it.  If your type has memory to free or other clean-up to
perform, put it here.  The object itself needs to be freed here as
well.  Here is an example of this function:

\begin{verbatim}
static void
newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject * obj)
{
    free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
    PyObject_DEL(obj);
}
\end{verbatim}

One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it
leaves any pending exceptions alone.  This is important since
deallocators are frequently called as the interpreter unwinds the
Python stack; when the stack is unwound due to an exception (rather
than normal returns), nothing is done to protect the deallocators from
seeing that an exception has already been set.  Any actions which a
deallocator performs which may cause additional Python code to be
executed may detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to
misleading errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect
against this is to save a pending exception before performing the
unsafe action, and restoring it when done.  This can be done using the
\cfunction{PyErr_Fetch()}\ttindex{PyErr_Fetch()} and
\cfunction{PyErr_Restore()}\ttindex{PyErr_Restore()} functions:

\begin{verbatim}
static void
my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
{
    MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
    PyObject *cbresult;

    if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
        PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;
        int have_error = PyErr_Occurred() ? 1 : 0;

        if (have_error)
            PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

        cbresult = PyObject_CallObject(self->my_callback, NULL);
        if (cbresult == NULL)
            PyErr_WriteUnraisable();
        else
            Py_DECREF(cbresult);

        if (have_error)
            PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

        Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
    }
    PyObject_DEL(obj);
}
\end{verbatim}


\subsection{Object Presentation}

In Python, there are three ways to generate a textual representation
of an object: the \function{repr()}\bifuncindex{repr} function (or
equivalent backtick syntax), the \function{str()}\bifuncindex{str}
function, and the \keyword{print} statement.  For most objects, the
\keyword{print} statement is equivalent to the \function{str()}
function, but it is possible to special-case printing to a
\ctype{FILE*} if necessary; this should only be done if efficiency is
identified as a problem and profiling suggests that creating a
temporary string object to be written to a file is too expensive.

These handlers are all optional, and most types at most need to
implement the \member{tp_str} and \member{tp_repr} handlers.

\begin{verbatim}
    reprfunc tp_repr;
    reprfunc tp_str;
    printfunc tp_print;
\end{verbatim}

The \member{tp_repr} handler should return a string object containing
a representation of the instance for which it is called.  Here is a
simple example:

\begin{verbatim}
static PyObject *
newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject * obj)
{
    return PyString_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:\%d}}",
                               obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
}
\end{verbatim}

If no \member{tp_repr} handler is specified, the interpreter will
supply a representation that uses the type's \member{tp_name} and a
uniquely-identifying value for the object.

The \member{tp_str} handler is to \function{str()} what the
\member{tp_repr} handler described above is to \function{repr()}; that
is, it is called when Python code calls \function{str()} on an
instance of your object.  It's implementation is very similar to the
\member{tp_repr} function, but the resulting string is intended for
human consumption.  It \member{tp_str} is not specified, the
\member{tp_repr} handler is used instead.

Here is a simple example:

\begin{verbatim}
static PyObject *
newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject * obj)
{
    return PyString_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:\%d}}",
                               obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
}
\end{verbatim}

The print function will be called whenever Python needs to "print" an
instance of the type.  For example, if 'node' is an instance of type
TreeNode, then the print function is called when Python code calls:

\begin{verbatim}
print node
\end{verbatim}

There is a flags argument and one flag, \constant{Py_PRINT_RAW}, and
it suggests that you print without string quotes and possibly without
interpreting escape sequences.

The print function receives a file object as an argument. You will
likely want to write to that file object.

Here is a sampe print function:

\begin{verbatim}
static int
newdatatype_print(newdatatypeobject *obj, FILE *fp, int flags)
{
    if (flags & Py_PRINT_RAW) {
        fprintf(fp, "<{newdatatype object--size: %d}>",
                obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
    }
    else {
        fprintf(fp, "\"<{newdatatype object--size: %d}>\"",
                obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
    }
    return 0;
}
\end{verbatim}


\subsection{Attribute Management}

For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type
must provide the functions that control how the attributes are
resolved.  There needs to be a function which can retrieve attributes
(if any are defined), and another to set attributes (if setting
attributes is allowed).  Removing an attribute is a special case, for
which the new value passed to the handler is \NULL.

Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports
attributes only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The
difference is that one pair takes the name of the attribute as a
\ctype{char*}, while the other accepts a \ctype{PyObject*}.  Each type
can use whichever pair makes more sense for the implementation's
convenience.

\begin{verbatim}
    getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
    setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
    /* ... */
    getattrofunc tp_getattrofunc;   /* PyObject * version */
    setattrofunc tp_setattrofunc;
\end{verbatim}

If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation
(this will be explained shortly), there are generic implementations
which can be used to provide the \ctype{PyObject*} version of the
attribute management functions.  The actual need for type-specific
attribute handlers almost completely disappeared starting with Python
2.2, though there are many examples which have not been updated to use
some of the new generic mechanism that is available.


\subsubsection{Generic Attribute Management}

\versionadded{2.2}

Most extension types only use \emph{simple} attributes.  So, what
makes the attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions
that must be met:

\begin{enumerate}
  \item   The name of the attributes must be known when
          \cfunction{PyType_Ready()} is called.

  \item   No special processing is need to record that an attribute
          was looked up or set, nor do actions need to be taken based
          on the value.
\end{enumerate}

Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of
the attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is
stored.

When \cfunction{PyType_Ready()} is called, it uses three tables
referenced by the type object to create \emph{descriptors} which are
placed in the dictionary of the type object.  Each descriptor controls
access to one attribute of the instance object.  Each of the tables is
optional; if all three are \NULL, instances of the type will only have
attributes that are inherited from their base type, and should leave
the \member{tp_getattro} and \member{tp_setattro} fields \NULL{} as
well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.

The tables are declared as three fields of the type object:

\begin{verbatim}
    struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
    struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
    struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
\end{verbatim}

If \member{tp_methods} is not \NULL, it must refer to an array of
\ctype{PyMethodDef} structures.  Each entry in the table is an
instance of this structure:

\begin{verbatim}
typedef struct PyMethodDef {
    char        *ml_name;       /* method name */
    PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
    int	         ml_flags;      /* flags */
    char        *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
} PyMethodDef;
\end{verbatim}

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no
entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One
additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the
end of the array.  The \member{ml_name} field of the sentinel must be
\NULL.

XXX Need to refer to some unified discussion of the structure fields,
shared with the next section.

The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to
data stored in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are
supported, and access may be read-only or read-write.  The structures
in the table are defined as:

\begin{verbatim}
typedef struct PyMemberDef {
    char *name;
    int   type;
    int   offset;
    int   flags;
    char *doc;
} PyMemberDef;
\end{verbatim}

For each entry in the table, a descriptor will be constructed and
added to the type which will be able to extract a value from the
instance structure.  The \member{type} field should contain one of the
type codes defined in the \file{structmember.h} header; the value will
be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from C
values.  The \member{flags} field is used to store flags which control
how the attribute can be accessed.

XXX Need to move some of this to a shared section!

The following flag constants are defined in \file{structmember.h};
they may be combined using bitwise-OR.

\begin{tableii}{l|l}{constant}{Constant}{Meaning}
  \lineii{READONLY \ttindex{READONLY}}
         {Never writable.}
  \lineii{RO \ttindex{RO}}
         {Shorthand for \constant{READONLY}.}
  \lineii{READ_RESTRICTED \ttindex{READ_RESTRICTED}}
         {Not readable in restricted mode.}
  \lineii{WRITE_RESTRICTED \ttindex{WRITE_RESTRICTED}}
         {Not writable in restricted mode.}
  \lineii{RESTRICTED \ttindex{RESTRICTED}}
         {Not readable or writable in restricted mode.}
\end{tableii}

An interesting advantage of using the \member{tp_members} table to
build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute
defined this way can have an associated docstring simply by providing
the text in the table.  An application can use the introspection API
to retrieve the descriptor from the class object, and get the
docstring using its \member{__doc__} attribute.

As with the \member{tp_methods} table, a sentinel entry with a
\member{name} value of \NULL{} is required.  


% XXX Descriptors need to be explained in more detail somewhere, but
% not here.
%
% Descriptor objects have two handler functions which correspond to
% the \member{tp_getattro} and \member{tp_setattro} handlers.  The
% \method{__get__()} handler is a function which is passed the
% descriptor, instance, and type objects, and returns the value of the
% attribute, or it returns \NULL{} and sets an exception.  The
% \method{__set__()} handler is passed the descriptor, instance, type,
% and new value;


\subsubsection{Type-specific Attribute Management}

For simplicity, only the \ctype{char*} version will be demonstrated
here; the type of the name parameter is the only difference between
the \ctype{char*} and \ctype{PyObject*} flavors of the interface.
This example effectively does the same thing as the generic example
above, but does not use the generic support added in Python 2.2.  The
value in showing this is two-fold: it demonstrates how basic attribute
management can be done in a way that is portable to older versions of
Python, and explains how the handler functions are called, so that if
you do need to extend their functionality, you'll understand what
needs to be done.

The \member{tp_getattr} handler is called when the object requires an
attribute look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the
\method{__getattr__()} method of a class would be called.

A likely way to handle this is (1) to implement a set of functions
(such as \cfunction{newdatatype_getSize()} and
\cfunction{newdatatype_setSize()} in the example below), (2) provide a
method table listing these functions, and (3) provide a getattr
function that returns the result of a lookup in that table.  The
method table uses the same structure as the \member{tp_methods} field
of the type object.

Here is an example:

\begin{verbatim}
static PyMethodDef newdatatype_methods[] = {
    {"getSize", (PyCFunction)newdatatype_getSize, METH_VARARGS,
     "Return the current size."},
    {"setSize", (PyCFunction)newdatatype_setSize, METH_VARARGS,
     "Set the size."},
    {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}           /* sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
{
    return Py_FindMethod(newdatatype_methods, (PyObject *)obj, name);
}
\end{verbatim}

The \member{tp_setattr} handler is called when the
\method{__setattr__()} or \method{__delattr__()} method of a class
instance would be called.  When an attribute should be deleted, the
third parameter will be \NULL.  Here is an example that simply raises
an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the
\member{tp_setattr} handler should be set to \NULL.
   
\begin{verbatim}
static int
newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
{
    (void)PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: \%s", name);
    return -1;
}
\end{verbatim}


\subsection{Object Comparison}

\begin{verbatim}
    cmpfunc tp_compare;
\end{verbatim}

The \member{tp_compare} handler is called when comparisons are needed
are the object does not implement the specific rich comparison method
which matches the requested comparison.  (It is always used if defined
and the \cfunction{PyObject_Compare()} or \cfunction{PyObject_Cmp()}
functions are used, or if \function{cmp()} is used from Python.)
It is analogous to the \method{__cmp__()} method.  This function
should return \code{-1} if \var{obj1} is less than
\var{obj2}, \code{0} if they are equal, and \code{1} if
\var{obj1} is greater than
\var{obj2}.
(It was previously allowed to return arbitrary negative or positive
integers for less than and greater than, respectively; as of Python
2.2, this is no longer allowed.  In the future, other return values
may be assigned a different meaning.)

A \member{tp_compare} handler may raise an exception.  In this case it
should return a negative value.  The caller has to test for the
exception using \cfunction{PyErr_Occurred()}.


Here is a sample implementation:

\begin{verbatim}
static int
newdatatype_compare(newdatatypeobject * obj1, newdatatypeobject * obj2)
{
    long result;
 
    if (obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size <
        obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size) {
        result = -1;
    }
    else if (obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size >
             obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size) {
        result = 1;
    }
    else {
        result = 0;
    }
    return result;
}
\end{verbatim}


\subsection{Abstract Protocol Support}

Python supports a variety of \emph{abstract} `protocols;' the specific
interfaces provided to use these interfaces are documented in the
\citetitle[../api/api.html]{Python/C API Reference Manual} in the
chapter ``\ulink{Abstract Objects Layer}{../api/abstract.html}.''

A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the
development of the Python implementation.  In particular, the number,
mapping, and sequence protocols have been part of Python since the
beginning.  Other protocols have been added over time.  For protocols
which depend on several handler routines from the type implementation,
the older protocols have been defined as optional blocks of handlers
referenced by the type object, while newer protocols have been added
using additional slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being
set to indicate that the slots are present.  (The flag bit does not
indicate that the slot values are non-\NULL.)

\begin{verbatim}
    PyNumberMethods   tp_as_number;
    PySequenceMethods tp_as_sequence;
    PyMappingMethods  tp_as_mapping;
\end{verbatim}

If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence,
or a mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that
implements the C type \ctype{PyNumberMethods},
\ctype{PySequenceMethods}, or \ctype{PyMappingMethods}, respectively.
It is up to you to fill in this structure with appropriate values. You
can find examples of the use of each of these in the \file{Objects}
directory of the Python source distribution.


\begin{verbatim}
    hashfunc tp_hash;
\end{verbatim}

This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash
number for an instance of your datatype. Here is a moderately
pointless example:

\begin{verbatim}
static long
newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
{
    long result;
    result = obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
    result = result * 3;
    return result;
}
\end{verbatim}

\begin{verbatim}
    ternaryfunc tp_call;
\end{verbatim}

This function is called when an instance of your datatype is "called",
for example, if \code{obj1} is an instance of your datatype and the Python
script contains \code{obj1('hello')}, the \member{tp_call} handler is
invoked.

This function takes three arguments:

\begin{enumerate}
  \item
    \var{arg1} is the instance of the datatype which is the subject of
    the call. If the call is \code{obj1('hello')}, then \var{arg1} is
    \code{obj1}.

  \item
    \var{arg2} is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You
    can use \cfunction{PyArg_ParseTuple()} to extract the arguments.

  \item
    \var{arg3} is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed.
    If this is non-\NULL{} and you support keyword arguments, use
    \cfunction{PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()} to extract the
    arguments.  If you do not want to support keyword arguments and
    this is non-\NULL, raise a \exception{TypeError} with a message
    saying that keyword arguments are not supported.
\end{enumerate}
       
Here is a desultory example of the implementation of the call function.

\begin{verbatim}
/* Implement the call function.
 *    obj1 is the instance receiving the call.
 *    obj2 is a tuple containing the arguments to the call, in this
 *         case 3 strings.
 */
static PyObject *
newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *other)
{
    PyObject *result;
    char *arg1;
    char *arg2;
    char *arg3;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
        return NULL;
    }
    result = PyString_FromFormat(
        "Returning -- value: [\%d] arg1: [\%s] arg2: [\%s] arg3: [\%s]\n",
        obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
        arg1, arg2, arg3);
    printf("\%s", PyString_AS_STRING(result));
    return result;
}
\end{verbatim}

XXX some fields need to be added here...


\begin{verbatim}
    /* Added in release 2.2 */
    /* Iterators */
    getiterfunc tp_iter;
    iternextfunc tp_iternext;
\end{verbatim}

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Any object
which wishes to support iteration over it's contents (which may be
generated during iteration) must implement the \code{tp_iter}
handler.  Objects which are returned by a \code{tp_iter} handler must
implement both the \code{tp_iter} and \code{tp_iternext} handlers.
Both handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they
are being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an
error, they should set an exception and return \NULL.

For an object which represents an iterable collection, the
\code{tp_iter} handler must return an iterator object.  The iterator
object is responsible for maintaining the state of the iteration.  For
collections which can support multiple iterators which do not
interfere with each other (as lists and tuples do), a new iterator
should be created and returned.  Objects which can only be iterated
over once (usually due to side effects of iteration) should implement
this handler by returning a new reference to themselves, and should
also implement the \code{tp_iternext} handler.  File objects are an
example of such an iterator.

Iterator objects should implement both handlers.  The \code{tp_iter}
handler should return a new reference to the iterator (this is the
same as the \code{tp_iter} handler for objects which can only be
iterated over destructively).  The \code{tp_iternext} handler should
return a new reference to the next object in the iteration if there is
one.  If the iteration has reached the end, it may return \NULL{}
without setting an exception or it may set \exception{StopIteration};
avoiding the exception can yield slightly better performance.  If an
actual error occurs, it should set an exception and return \NULL.


\subsection{Cycle Collector Support
            \label{example-cycle-support}}

This example shows only enough of the implementation of an extension
type to show how the garbage collector support needs to be added.  It
shows the definition of the object structure, the
\member{tp_traverse}, \member{tp_clear} and \member{tp_dealloc}
implementations, the type structure, and a constructor --- the module
initialization needed to export the constructor to Python is not shown
as there are no special considerations there for the collector.  To
make this interesting, assume that the module exposes ways for the
\member{container} field of the object to be modified.  Note that
since no checks are made on the type of the object used to initialize
\member{container}, we have to assume that it may be a container.

\verbatiminput{cycle-gc.c}

Full details on the APIs related to the cycle detector are in
\ulink{Supporting Cyclic Garbarge
Collection}{../api/supporting-cycle-detection.html} in the
\citetitle[../api/api.html]{Python/C API Reference Manual}.


\subsection{More Suggestions}

Remember that you can omit most of these functions, in which case you
provide \code{0} as a value.

In the \file{Objects} directory of the Python source distribution,
there is a file \file{xxobject.c}, which is intended to be used as a
template for the implementation of new types.  One useful strategy
for implementing a new type is to copy and rename this file, then
read the instructions at the top of it.

There are type definitions for each of the functions you must
provide.  They are in \file{object.h} in the Python include
directory that comes with the source distribution of Python.

In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new
datatype, do the following: Download and unpack the Python source
distribution.  Go the the \file{Objects} directory, then search the
C source files for \code{tp_} plus the function you want (for
example, \code{tp_print} or \code{tp_compare}).  You will find
examples of the function you want to implement.

When you need to verify that the type of an object is indeed the
object you are implementing and if you use xxobject.c as an starting
template for your implementation, then there is a macro defined for
this purpose. The macro definition will look something like this:

\begin{verbatim}
#define is_newdatatypeobject(v)  ((v)->ob_type == &Newdatatypetype)
\end{verbatim}

And, a sample of its use might be something like the following:

\begin{verbatim}
    if (!is_newdatatypeobject(objp1) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a newdatatype");
        return NULL;
    }
\end{verbatim}
